THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

IN  MEMORY  OF 
EDWIN  CORLE 


PRESENTED  BY 
JEAN  CORLE 


N 


(L 


Col.  GEORGE  W.  GOETHALS,  U.  S.  A. 
Chaiiiman  and  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 


UNCLE    SAM'S 

Panama  Canal  and  World  History 

ACCOMPANYING  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  FLAT-GLOBE 


ITS  ACHIEVEMENT  AN  HONOR  TO 
THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  A 
BLESSING     TO    THE    WORLD 


By 
JOSEPH  BUCKLIN  BISHOP 

Secretary  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 

and 
ADMIRAL  ROBERT  E.  PEARY,  U.  S.  N. 


ILLUSTRATED 


Published  by 
JOHN  WANAIVIAKER 

Expressly  for  the 

WORLD  SYNDICATE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


Copyright,  1901-1905 
By  International  Globe  Co. 


Copyright,  1913 
By  John  Wanamaker,  New  York 


Uncle  Sam's  Panama  Canal  and  World 
History,  and  its  Companion,  the  Panama 
Flat-Globe  are  protected  by  Copyright  in 
the  United  States  of  America  and 
foreign  countries. 


PUBLISHER'S       STATEMENT 


?E  STATE  WITH  SATISFACTION  that  the  Panama  Canal 
Flat-Globe  and  Geographical  World  History  give  in  a  concise, 
yet  exhaustive  form,  an  up-to-date  presentation  of  world-wide 
geography  that  has  no  counterpart.  They  also  comprise 
a  new  and  advanced  system  of  geographical  review  and 
reference  that  has  never  existed  before,  in  a  form  that  is  easy 
to  understand  and  convenient  to  use.  Further,  they  give 
a  full  illustration  and  description  of  the  Panama  Canal,  and  the  facts  about 
the  Suez  Canal  by  the  highest  authority. 

THIS  GLOBE  and  HISTORY  mark  a  new  departure  in  the  considera- 
tion of  the  complete  geography  of  the  world.  They  cover  fully  the 
illustration,  explanation  and  description  of  the  earth  upon  which  we  live. 
Each  of  the  two  parts  (Globe  and  History)  is  necessary  to  the  intelligent 
and  satisfactory  use  of  the  other.  Together,  they  comprise  a  product 
needed  to-day  in  every  family  circle  and  business  place. 

PANAMA  CANAL  BOOKS,  geographies,  maps,  atlases,  charts  and 
the  geograi^hical  part  of  encyclopedias  are  fragmentary  and  disconnected 
presentations,  whereas  the  Panama  Canal  Flat-Globe  and  Geographical 
World  History  cover  the  subject  of  world-wide  geography  from  all  points, 
connectedly  and  completely. 

THE  PANAMA  CANAL  FLAT-GLOBE  illustrates  the  whole  world. 
It  indicates  upon  its  surface,  in  their  proper  relationship,  the  oceans  and 
seas,  continents,  countries  and  islands,  the  continental  systems  of  great 
railroads,  rivers,  lakes  and  mountains.  It  also  gives  the  latitude,  longitude, 
time  around  the  world,  steamship  and  cable  routes,  prevailing  winds, 
ocean  currents,  ice-drifts,  etc.,  and  clearly  shows  the  latest  routings  of  the 
ocean  highways  with  proper  distances  through  the  Panama  and  Suez  Canals. 
THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  WORLD  HISTORY  explains  the  sul)ject  of 
world-wide  geography  under  the  heads  of  Physical  Geography  and  the 
phenomena  and  forces  of  nature;  Mathematical  Geography,  with  its  inter- 
esting data  in  relation  to  time,  climate  and  seasons;  and  national  or  polit- 
ical geography,  dividing  the  continents  into  their  numerous  sections  of 
governmental  control;  with  fre((uent  reference  to  the  Flat-Globe  to  give 
the  proper  and  clear  understanding  of  these  subjects. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AGES,  and  of  the  2,000,000,000,  people 
who  inhabit  the  earth  together  with  their  activities,  is  shown  in  tlie  national 
and  political  sub-divisions  of  the  world,  the  development  of  its  resources, 
ocean  and  land  transportation  facilities  and  means  of  intercommunication, 
and  the  industrial,  commercial  and  agricultural  activities  of  the  various 
races.     All  these  subjects  are  clearly  presented  in  this  production, 

THE  FLAT-GLOBE  and  WORLD  HISTORY  are  edited  by  Admiral 
Robert  E.  Peary,  U.  S.  N.,  Discoverer  of  the  North  Pole,  President  Eighth 
International  Geographic  Congress,  Three  Years  President  American 
Geographical  Society,  New  York,  Member  of  the  National  Geographic 
Society,  Washington,  D.  C,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographic  Society, 
London,  England;  Joseph  Buckhn  Bishop,  Eight  Years  Secretary  of  the 


204ri4<^4 


Panama  Canal;  Cyrus  C.  Adams,  Geographical  Author  and  Editor  of  the 
American  Geographical  Society.  These  names  are  sufficient  guarantee  of 
the  correctness  and  perfection  of  the  Globe  and  History.  All  the  geo- 
graphical facts  contained  in  both  the  Globe  and  History  are  the  very 
latest  and  statistics  are  taken  from  the  last  census. 


INSTRUCTIONS  IMPORTANT  TO  USERS 

The  Panama  Canal  Flat-Globe  and  World  History  are  designed  to  fill 
a  long-felt  want,  a  real  need  in  every  family  circle  and  business  place,  and 
they  do  it  completely  and  perfectly.  The  Globe  gives  an  objective 
illustration  of  the  entire  earth's  surface.  The  history  explains  physical, 
mathematical  and  national  or  political  geography  and  human  activities 
over  the  world.  Read  the  history  with  the  Globe  before  you  and  you  will 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  world  that  is  of  great  value,  both  scholarly 
and  commercial. 

The  Flat-Globe  should  be  hung  against  the  wall  in  the  home 
or  office,  the  equatorial  line  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  It  is  a  beautiful  orna- 
ment that  delights  the  eye  and  instructs  the  mind.  It  can  be  rolled  into 
very  small  space  and  put  away  in  a  drawer,  closet,  or  upon  a  shelf  M'hen 
not  in  use. 

THE  FLAT-GLOBE  is  delivered  rolled  into  small  space._  All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  carefully  roll  it  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  it  will  become 
pliable  and  perfectly  flat.  Should  it  ever  curl  or  turn  up  the  same  treat- 
ment will  at  any  time  straighten  it  easily  and  instantly. 

THE  GLOBE  is  made  of  a  flexible  composition,  that,  with  proper  care, 
will  last  for  twenty  years.     It  can,  if  it  becomes  dusty  or  soiled,  be  gently' 
wiped  with  a  moist  or  damp,  but  not  wet  cloth,  or  with  a  piece  of  soft, 
moist  bread,  without  injury. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  FLAT-GLOBE 
OVER  THE  OLD  STYLE  BALL  GLOBE 

THE  FLAT-GLOBE  pictures  the  World  in  large  size  (it  is  beautifully 
printed  in  seven  colors  upon  a  circular  disk  28  inches  in  diameter)  at  a 
glance.  AN  OLD  STYLE  GLOBE  THE  SAME  APPROXIMATE  SIZE 
COSTS  ABOUT  $50.00. 

The  only  value  of  a  globe  is  the  intelligence  and  information  it 
offers.  THE  FLAT-GLOBE  has  all  the  value  of  the  old  Ball  Globe  and 
none  of  its  disadvantages — it  is  easy  and  convenient  to  use. 

It  gives  a  full  unobstructed  view  of  each  hemisphere,  the  North  Pole 
up,  the  South  Pole  down.  Latitude,  longitude,  and  all  the  entire  world's 
surface  is  connected  from  side  to  side  around  it  as  in  the  old-fashioned 
Globe. 

It  is  not  heavy,  cumbersome,  inconvenient  to  use,  nor  does  it  occupy  a 
large  space  in  the  office  or  home.  It  can  be  used  upon  a  table  or  desk,  upon 
the  lap,  or  at  night  under  a  light. 

In  traveling  it  can  be  carried  in  a  valise  or  trunk  always  ready  for  use, 
occupying  almost  no  space. 


JOSEPH  BUCKLIN  BISHOP 
Secretary  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 


UNCLE  SAM'S 

PANAMA  CANAL  and  WORLD  HISTORY 

I  HE  official  seal  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  bears 
the  motto:  "The  Land  Divided.  The  World  United." 
That  is  a  terse  and  accurate  statement  of  what  the 
Panama  Canal  accomplishes.  It  divides  a  hemisphere  and  by 
opening  a  new  and  shorter  ocean  highway  brings  the  nations  of 
the  earth  into  closer  intercourse  with  one  another. 

In  supplying  this  highway  the  United  States  has  conferred  a 
benefit  upon  mankind  which  has  few  equals  in  human  history, 
the  full  measure  of  which  time  alone  can  reveal. 

Great  wars  change  the  map  of  the  world  by  their  victories, 
but  few  have  made  more  radical  and  far  reaching  changes  than 
will  follow  this  momentous  victory  of  peace — a  victory  for 
human  welfare  and  progress. 

The  Vision  of  Columbus. — The  Canal  realizes  the  dream 
of  Columbus  in  supplying  by  the  hand  of  man  that  "hidden 
strait"  which  he  sought  so  eagerly  in  the  firm  belief  that  it  had 
been  created  by  the  Almighty  as  the  pathway  of  the  seas  to  the 
Indies.  If  he  were  living  to-day  and  could  visit  the  Atlantic 
entrance  to  the  Canal  he  would  find  it  placed  in  an  inlet  of  the 
same  shore  which  he  scanned  so  closely  nearly  four  centuries 
ago  as  he  sailed  along  it  in  his  search  for  the  "hidden  strait." 

Balboa  and  Magellan. — His  belief  remained  unshaken  for 
many  yeai's  after  his  death,  and  the  search  was  continued  by 
navigators  from  various  nations  of  the  old  world  who  had  been 
inspired  by  his  discoveries  to  follow  in  his  wake. 

Even  after  Balboa  had  climbed  the  mountains  of  the  Cordill- 
eras and  caught  his  first  glimpse  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  it  still 
maintained  its  hold.     The  realization  of  the  fact  that  Columbus 


10  UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

had  discovered  a  new  world  rather  than  an  unknown  part  of 
Asia  was  of  very  slow  growth.  It  began  to  get  a  lasting  founda- 
tion only  when  Magellan  sailed  around  the  southern  extremity 
of  South  America  and  entered  the  Pacific  Ocean  through  the 
strait  which  bears  his  name.  Magellan  called  the  new  ocean 
Pacific  because  of  its  calm  aspect  while  he  was  in  it.  Balboa 
had  called  it  the  "South  Sea,"  but  Magellan's  name  became  the 
permanent  appellation. 

Point  of  Balboa's  Discovery. — There  is  much  erroneous 
information  in  print  a!)out  the  exact  place  of  Balboa's  first  sight 
of  the  Pacific.  On  the  line  of  the  Panama  Canal,  nearly  midway 
there  is  a  mountain  about  1,000  feet  high  which  is  called  "Balboa 
Hill,"  because  from  a  lookout  in  a  tree  on  its  summit  both  oceans 
can  be  seen  on  a  clear  day.  This  name  has  misled  many  visitors 
to  the  Isthmus  into  the  belief  that  it  was  on  this  elevation  that 
Balboa  made  his  discovery. 

San  Miguel  Bay. — Balboa  was  never  on  this  part  of  the 
Isthmus.  He  started  on  his  journey  of  discovery  on  the  north- 
eastern shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  and  he  first  saw  the  Pacific 
from  a  mountain  top  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on  Sept.  25,  1513, 
old  style,  Oct.  5,  new  style.  He  named  this  bay  San  Miguel, 
because  the  day  of  his  discovery  was  St.  Michael's  day  in  the 
calendar  of  the  Catholic  Church.  That  name  it  still  bears,  and 
fixes  indisputably  the  place  of  discovery. 

The  name  of  the  mountain  peak  is  not  known;  in  fact,  it  un- 
doubtedly had  no  name  at  the  time  for  the  country  was  inhabited 
only  by  tribes  of  very  wild  Indians,  and  was  virtually  impass- 
able. Various  mountain  peaks  have  been  cited  as  the  one  on 
which  Balboa  stood,  but  they  are  mere  guesses.  The  location 
'is  about  125  miles  east  of  the  Canal  line. 

Murder  of  Balboa. — Balboa  was  put  to  death  in  January, 
1519  by  one  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila,  known  in  history  most  often 


The  Cathedral  of  Panama  City 


11 


12  UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

as  Pedrarias,  one  of  the  most  unscrupulous  and  cruel  of  the  many 
adventurers  who  were  sent  out  by  Spain  to  rule  its  new  posses- 
sions in  America.  He  was  jealous  of  Balboa's  great  fame  as  a 
discoverer  and  of  his  popularity  in  the  province  in  which  both 
lived.  He  had  Balboa  arrested  and  tried  on  trumped-up  charges 
and  beheaded  together  with  four  of  his  companions,  two  of  whom 
had  stood  with  him  on  the  mountain  when  he  first  saw  the  Pacific 
ocean. 

The  name  of  the  place  at  which  the  execution  took  place  was 
Ada,  meaning  bones,  so  called  because  it  was  the  frequent  battle 
ground  of  two  rival  Indian  tribes  whose  chiefs  were  two  brothers. 
It  was  a  small  settlement  of  huts,  situated  on  the  northeastern 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  and  it  was  from  it  that  Balboa  set 
out  to  cross  the  mountains  on  his  Journey  of  discovery. 

Old  Panama. — Avila's  murder  of  Balboa,  and  his  many 
other  atrocities,  compelled  him  to  flee  from  the  province  on  the 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien  of  which  he  was  the  ruler  by  order  of 
the  King  of  Spain.  A  few  months  after  Balboa's  death,  he 
started  with  about  400  followers,  crossed  the  mountains  over 
the  same  route  in  which  Balboa  had  travelled,  passed  down  the 
Gulf  of  San  Miguel  to  the  Pacific,  and  there  embarked  in  some 
ships  Balboa  had  constructed  for  voyages  of  discovery,  and  sailed 
along  the  coast  to  the  eastward. 

He  passed  the  Pearl  Islands  in  the  present  Bay  of  Panama, 
which  Balboa  had  discovered  and  named,  passed  also  other 
groups  of  islands,  three  of  which  are  now  the  sites  of  the  forti- 
fications of  the  Canal  at  its  Pacific  entrance,  and  reached  a  small 
Indian  village  about  four  miles  east  of  the  present  city  of  Panama. 

Panama  Means  "Plenty  of  Fish." — The  village  stood  at 
the  head  of  a  deep  and  shallow  bay,  which  was  quite  dry  at  low 
tide.  It  was  a  mere  settlement  of  huts,  the  inhabitants  being 
fishermen  who  called  the  place  Panama  because  of  the  abundance 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  13 

of  fish  in  the  waters,  the  word  signifying  in  the  primitive  hinguage 
of  the  native  Cueva  Indians  "plenty  fish." 

Founding  the  City. — Avila  decided  to  found  a  city  there,  and 
it  was  estabhshed  formally  with  the  name  of  Panama  on  August 
15, 1521.  Gradually  the  inhabitants  of  the  settlement  on  the  Gulf 
of  Darien,  the  chief  of  which  was  Santa  Maria  de  la  Antigua,  with 
their  flocks  and  other  possessions,  moved  to  the  new  place. 

It  grew  rapidly,  and  was  made  a  city  by  royal  decree  of 
Charles  V,  on  Septenil)er  15,  1521.  Its  position  as  the  chief 
port  of  the  Pacific  and  terminus  of  the  first  transit  route  or  trail 
across  the  Isthmus  was  the  chief  cause  of  this.  It  was  the  gate- 
way for  all  commerce  between  Spain  and  its  American  posses- 
sions, including  the  great  outjDut  of  gold  and  silver  from  the 
rich  mines  of  Peru.  Pizarro  fitted  out  there  his  three  expedi- 
tions to  Peru,  the  last  of  which  resulted  in  its  conquest  in  1531. 

It  was  twice  swept  by  fire,  first  in  1563,  and  again  in  1644, 
being  nearly  destroyed  on  both  occasions.  It  rallied  from  the 
latter  disaster  only  to  be  sacked  in  1671  by  Morgan,  the  notor- 
ious buccaneer,  and  burned  to  the  ground. 

The  City's  Size  and  Wealth  Exaggerated. — History  for 
nearlj'  two  centuries  has  abounded  in  exaggerated  statements 
concerning  the  size  and  wealth  of  the  city.  These  are  founded 
on  the  celebrated  narrative  of  John  Esquemeling,  one  of  Morgan's 
band  of  pirates  who  sacked  the  city. 

Esquemeling's  book,  which  was  first  published  in  Holland  in 
1678,  and  has  had  repeated  publications  in  English  since  that 
time,  retains  its  position  to  this  day  as  one  of  the  most  vivid  and 
interesting  books  in  piratical  literature,  but  as  history  it  is 
absurdly  inaccurate.  In  it  he  represented  the  city  as  containing 
"two  thousand  houses  of  magnificent  and  prodigious  building, 
being  all  or  in  the  greatest  part  inhabited  by  merchants  of  that 
country  who  are  vastly  rich,"  for  "inhabitants  of  lesser  quality 


14  UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA   CANAI,  AND  WORLD   HISTORY 

and  tradesmen  jBve  thousand  houses  more,"  and  eight  monas- 
teries and  two  stately  churches,  "all  richly  adorned  with  altar 
pieces  and  paintings." 

Real  Size  of  the  City. — On  this  foundation,  imaginative 
writers  have  constructed  a  city  of  50,000  inhabitants,  vast  wealth 
and  magnificent  buildings.  The  facts  of  the  case,  revealed  by 
careful  study  of  the  dimensions  of  the  site,  the  character  of  the 
ruins,  and  the  official  documents  relating  to  it  in  the  archives 
preserved  by  the  government  in  Spain,  show  that  its  area  never 
exceeded  150  acres,  that  outside  of  its  churches  and  monasteries 
and  a  few  public  buildings,  it  contained  no  structures  that  could 
be  called  magnificent  or  anything  approaching  that  term,  and 
that  its  population  never  exceeded  10,000,  the  greater  part  of 
whom  were  negroes  and  slaves.  Its  buildings,  aside  from  those 
mentioned  above  which  were  of  stone,  were  similar  to  those  in 
Central  American  towns  of  to-day,  simple  in  character,  and 
mainly  of  wood,  while  those  of  the  negro  population  were  rude 
huts  or  shacks.  It  was  a  mere  gateway  for  the  wealth  which 
passed  through  it  to  Spain. 

The  New  City  of  Panama. — So  complete  was  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  old  city  that  no  effort  was  made  to  rebuild  it.  Its 
surviving  inhabitants  sought  for  a  new  city  a  site  which  could 
be  fortified  on  all  sides,  that  is,  a  site  for  a  walled  town.  This 
they  found  about  four  miles  west  of  the  old  site,  at  the  head  of 
the  Bay  of  Panama. 

There  in  January  1673,  they  established  by  royal  decree  and 
with  formal  religious  ceremonies  the  present  city  of  Panama. 
They  surrounded  it  with  a  huge  wall,  varying  from  20  to  30  feet 
in  height,  in  some  places  60  feet  in  thickness,  and  about  four 
miles  in  length.  There  were  strong  forts  on  the  land  and  sea 
sides,  with  the  heaviest  fortifications  known  at  the  time,  and  on 
the  land  side  a  deep  moat  with  drawbridge  and  massive  gates. 


U 


H 

Z 


IS 


16  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

The  wall  was  many  years  in  building,  and  cost  large  sums  of 
money.  Into  its  construction  went  much  stone  brought  from 
the  ruins  of  the  monasteries  and  churches  of  the  old  city.  It 
was  designed  to  repel  assault  by  land  and  sea  and  was  entirely 
successful.  Sections  of  the  old  wall  exist  to-day,  but  the  greater 
part  of  it  has  disappeared  as  the  city  has  increased  in  area. 

The  Famous  Flat  Arch. — Its  cathedral  was  nearly  88  years 
in  l:)uilding,  and  is  in  good  condition  to-day.  Some  of  its  earlier 
churches  are  now  in  ruins.  In  one  of  these,  which  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1756,  was  the  famous  "flat  arch,"  recently 
removed,  which  was  an  object  of  great  interest  to  visitors 
because  of  its  unusual  construction.  It  was  shown  to  visitors 
and  cited  as  evidence  of  the  lack  of  severe  earthquakes  on  that 
part  of  the  Isthnuis  for  the  past  two  centuries. 

Mule  Trail  Transit. — In  1519,  the  first  line  of  posts  with  a 
connecting  trail  was  opened  across  the  Isthmus  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific.  It  ran  from  old  Panama  city  on  the  Pacific  to 
Nombre  de  Dios  on  the  Caribbean,  a  distance  of  about  90  miles, 
crossing  the  Chagres  at  a  place  called  Venta  Cruz,  afterward 
Cruces.  For  16  years  this  was  the  sole  transit  route.  Later  the 
Chagres  River  was  made  navigable  for  small  boats  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Caribbean  to  Venta  Cruz,  a  distance  of  about  36 
miles,  and  thus  opened  a  water  route  from  Venta  Cruz  to  Nombre 
de  Dios,  which  was  situated  about  35  miles  east  of  the  present 
city  of  Colon. 

In  1597,  Porto  Bello,  15  miles  east  of  Colon,  was  substituted 
for  Nombre  de  Dios.  This  town  was  situated  in  a  bay  which 
had  been  visited  and  given  that  name  by  Columbus  in  1502. 
It  was  taken  and  sacked  by  Morgan  in  1668. 

The  American  canal  builders,  in  search  of  suitable  sand  and 
clay  for  tlie  construction  of  the  Gatun  locks  found  the  former  at 
Nombre  de  Dios  and  the  latter  at  Porto  Bello. 


Some  Panamanian  Belles  in  National  Costume 


17 


18  UNCLE   SAM'S   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY 

Three  Centuries  of  Mule  Transit. — Transit  by  rudely 
paved  trails  and  small  craft  over  the  lower  portion  of  the  Chagres 
River  continued  to  be  the  sole  method  of  crossing  the  Isthmus 
for  nearly  two  and  three-quarter  centuries. 

An  irresistible  demand  for  better  facilities  arose  in  1848 
when  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  sent  thousands  of  eager 
fortune  seekers  across  the  Isthmus  for  that  state.  Unwilling 
to  submit  to  the  delay  of  the  long  journey  around  Cape  Horn, 
they  took  the  short  cut  of  the  Isthmus,  carried  to  it  by  packet 
and  steamship  lines  which  were  opened  between  New  York  and 
the  termini  of  the  Isthmus  trails  on  the  Caribbean. 

The  hardships  which  they  endured  aroused  pubhc  attention 
in  the  United  States  to  both  the  necessity  and  the  commercial 
value  of  a  more  satisfactory  method  of  transit. 

The  Panama  Railroad. — In  December  1848,  three  energetic 
and  far-sighted  citizens  of  New  York,  William  Henry  Aspinwall, 
John  Lloyd  Stephens  and  Henry  Chauncey ,  under  the  name  of  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company,  obtained  from  New  Granada  of 
which  Panama  was  then  a  part,  a  grant  for  the  construction  of 
a  railway  across  the  Isthmus.  In  the  following  year  the  New 
York  Legislature  passed  an  act  incorporating  the  company. 
Construction  of  the  road  began  in  1850  and  it  was  completed 
in  1855.  The  chief  engineers  in  charge  of  the  work  were  Col. 
George  M.  Totten  and  John  C.  Trautwine.  The  first  continued 
till  the  end,  but  the  second  retired  at  the  end  of  the  first  year. " 

Real  Pioneers  of  the  Canal. — There  is  not  in  the  annals 
of  railway  construction  anywhere  record  of  greater  persistence 
and  more  indomitable  courage  than  the  builders  of  this  railway 

showed. 

They  were  the  pioneers  of  the  canal,  and  the  hardships  which 
they  endured  were  far  beyond  any  that  the  canal  builders  had 
to  face.     The  road  which  they  built  pointed  the  way  for  the 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  19 

canal  of  the  future  and  became  the  chief  agency  in  its  con- 
struction. 

They  did  honor  to  the  American  name  and  deserve  to  be  held 
in  lasting  remembrance,  yet  so  quickly  are  great  deeds  forgotten 
that  to-day  their  names  are  virtually  unknown  and  among 
thousands  of  Americans  there  exists  a  belief  that  the  Panama 
Railroad  was  constructed  by  the  French  during  their  effort  to 
build  a  canal,  though  it  was  finished  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century  before  they  arrived  on  the  Isthmus. 

Cost  in  Money  and  Life. — The  cost  of  the  railway  in  money 
was  about  $8,000,000.  The  cost  in  life  has  been  grossly  exag- 
gerated. 

A  deathless  "fake,"  which  has  been  published  seriously 
many  times,  says  it  "cost  a  life  for  every  tie."  That  has  a 
taking  sound  and  is  easily  remembered  and  though  often  denied 
has  a  fair  chance  of  immortality. 

Its  absurdity  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  there  were  about  150- 
000  ties  in  the  railway,  whereas  the  total  force  employed  in  its 
construction  did  not  exceed  6,000.  Col.  Totten  placed  the 
death  roll  at  835,  including  295  white  laborers;  140  black;  and 
400  Chinese. 

The  Clayton-Bulwer  Blockade. — At  the  same  time  that 
the  three  American  pioneers  were  beginning  the  construction 
of  the  Panama  Railroad,  there  was  in  contemplation  the  building 
of  a  canal.  In  1850  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  formed 
what  is  known  as  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  in  which  they 
agreed  to  favor  the  construction  of  an  Isthmus  Canal  under 
their  joint  protectJbn.  The  object  of  this  was  to  hasten  the 
building  of  a  canal,  but  the  joint  protection  provision  was  so 
unpopular  in  the  United  States  that  it  made  impossible  any  such 
construction  for  50  years. 

The  French  Failure. — In  the  meantime.  Count  Ferdinand 


20  UNCLE    SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND   WORLD    HISTORY 

de  Lesseps,  the  builder  of  the  Suez  Canal,  conceived  tie  idea  of 
repeating  his  success  at  Panama.  He  formed  a  company  for 
that  purpose  in  1879  and  began  work  in  the  following  year.  He 
proposed  to  build  a  canal  at  sea  level  and  to  accomplish  the 
task  in  12  years,  at  an  estimated  cost  of  about  $13Si,000,000. 
Eight  years  were  spent  in  the  effort,  and  about  $200,000,000 
were  expended.  During  that  time  about  one-third  of  the  pro- 
posed canal  had  been  excavated.  A  change  was  made  to  a  lock 
canal  during  the  final  year,  but  only  a  small  amount  of  work  was 
done  upon  it. 

Collapse  of  the  Company. — The  failure  of  the  French 
Company  in  1889  was  complete.  It  had  received  from  all 
sources  $266,000,000,  and  every  cent  of  it  had  been  spent.  It 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  receiver  and  an  official  examination 
of  its  affairs  which  followed  revealed  a  vast  amount  of  extrava- 
gance and  bad  management. 

Count  de  Lesseps  and  his  son  Charles  were  sentenced  to  a 
fine  and  to  a  term  of  imprisonment,  and  similar  sentences  were 
passed  upon  several  of  their  associates.  The  sentence  against 
the  Count  was  never  executed  for  he  was  88  years  old  at  the 
time,  and  in  very  feeble  health.  He  died  about  a  year  later. 
That  against  his  son  was  annuled  by  the  Court  of  Appeals. 

Work  of  the  French. — It  is  the  undivided  opinion  of  the 
engineers  of  the  American  canal  that  the  French  engineers  are 
entitled  to  high  praise  for  their  excellent  work,  and  for  the  cour- 
age and  devotion  shown  in  prosecuting  it.  They  had  to  en- 
counter obstacles  which  their  successors  were  not  called  upon  to 
meet.  The  mosquito  theory  of  disease  transmission — which  will 
be  considered  later  on  in  this  narrative — was  unknown  to  them. 
They  did  not  know  that  both  malaria  and  yellow  fever  were 
transmitted  in  that  way  and  in  that  way  alone,  and  could  not 
adopt  effective  measures  of  prevention. 


21 


22  tlNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

The  consequence  was  that  their  death  roll,  from  yellow  fever 
especially,  was  very  heavy,  and  dread  of  that  mysterious  disease 
was  constant  and  demoralizing.  During  the  eight  years  of 
work  about  2,000  Frenchmen  died  of  yellow  fever,  and  the  total 
death  roll  from  all  causes  among  all  employes  is  estimated  by 
the  best  authorities  at  about  16,500. 

It  was  a  situation  to  try  men's  souls,  and  it  is  an  honor  to  the 
French  nation  that  its  sons  proved  nobly  equal  to  the  test. 

Enter  the  Americans. — Following  the  French  failure, 
events  which  were  to  clear  the  way  for  the  American  canal 
occurred  with  gratifying  rapidity.  A  new  treaty  with  England, 
known  as  the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty,  was  adopted  which  gave 
the  United  States  the  right  to  construct  what  the  American 
people  desired — an  American  canal,  built  by  Americans  and 
controlled  by  Americans. 

A  Commission  appointed  by  President  McKinley  in  1890 
had  made  a  report  in  favor  of  constructing  an  Isthmian  canal  at 
Nicaragua  in  preference  to  Panama  because  the  new  French 
Canal  Company  which  had  been  organized  on  the  ruins  of  the 
old  asked  $109,000,000  for  its  rights,  property  and  franchise  on 
the  Isthmus,  which  the  Commission  had  valued  at  $40,000,000. 

Before  action  could  be  taken  by  Congress,  the  French  Com- 
pany consented  to  sell  for  $40,000,000,  and  the  Commission 
reversed  its  finding  and  recommended  a  canal  at  Panama. 

In  June,  1902  a  bill  was  passed  by  l)otli  houses  of  Congress 
and  signed  by  President  Roosevelt  adopting  Panama  as  the 
route. 

A  Good  Bargain. — That  the  United  States  made  a  good 
bargain  in  this  purchase  has  been  established  beyond  dispute. 
A  careful  appraisal  was  made  and  officially  adopted  by  the  Canal 
Commission  which  has  built  the  canal,  soon  after  the  work  was 
well  under  way,  of  the  value  of  the  .work  done  and  property  of 


UNCLE   SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  23 

all  kinds  received  from  the  French  in  return  for  the  payment, 
and  the  total  was  fixed  at  $42,799,826.  Of  this  amount  about 
$25,000,000  was  for  that  part  of  the  French  excavation — 
39,000,000  cubic  yards  out  of  a  total  of  78,000,000— which 
had  proved  useful  to  the  American  Canal. 

Colombia  Loses  Panama. — Before  work  could  begin  at 
Panama  a  treaty  had  to  be  made  by  the  United  States  with 
Colombia.  One  was  negotiated,  was  signed  by  representatives 
of  both  countries,  was  ratified  by  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, 
but  was  rejected  unanimously  by  the  Congress  of  Colombia,  on 
the  ground  that  the  price  stipulated  to  be  paid  to  Colombia^ 
$10,000,000  in  gold  and,  in  addition,  beginning  nine  years  after 
the  date  of  ratification,  an  annual  payment  of  $250,000,  was 
insufficient. 

The  authorized  representative  of  the  Colombian  government 
had  informed  the  American  government  through  its  minister  at 
Bogota  that  the  treaty  could  not  be  ratified  without  two  amend- 
ments, one  stipulating  that  the  French  Canal  Company  should 
pay  to  Colombia  $10,000,000  for  the  right  of  transfer  of  its 
Isthmus  property  to  the  United  States  and  the  other  increasing 
the  payment  of  the  United  States  to  Colombia  from  $10,000,000 
to  $15,000,000.  Secretary  Hay,  for  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, refused  to  entertain  these  proposals. 

Panama  Revolts. — The  representatives  of  the  department 
or  province  of  Panama  in  the  Colombian  Congress  gave  public 
notice  while  the  treaty  was  under  consideration  that  Panama 
would  revolt  if  it  were  rejected.  It  was  rejected  on  August,  12, 
1903,  and  on  November  3  a  revolution  took  place  in  Panama 
and  an  independent  Republic  was  established.  The  United  States 
government  promptly  recognized  the  new  republic,  negotiated  a 
treaty  with  it  for  the  construction  of  a  canal,  and  in  May  1904, 
formally  took  over  its  acquired  property  and  began  work. 


24  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Terms  of  the  Treaty. — Under  the  provisions  of  the  treaty 
the  United  States  guarantees  and  will  maintain  the  independence 
of  the  Republic  of  Panama.  In  return  for  the  payment  of 
$10,000,000  made  on  the  date  of  the  exchange  of  ratifications, 
and  for  an  annual  payment  of  $'250,000  beginning  nine  years 
after  that  date,  the  Republic  of  Panama  grants  in  perpetuity  to 
the  United  States  a  strip  of  territory  ten  miles  wide  and  extend- 
ing three  marine  mi!es  into  the  sea  at  either  terminal,  for  use, 
occupation  and  control,  together  with  all  lands  lying  outside 
this  zone  which  are  necessary  for  the  construction  of  the  canal  or 
for  its  auxiliaries,  and  the  islands  of  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra  and 
Flamenco  in  the  Bay  of  Panama. 

The  cities  of  Colon  and  Panama  are  not  embraced  in  the 
zone,  but  the  United  States  assumes  their  sanitation  and,  in 
case  of  need,  the  maintenance  of  public  order  therein.  Within 
the  zone  the  United  States  has  all  the  rights,  power,  and  author- 
ity which  it  would  possess  and  exercise  were  it  the  sovereign  of 
the  territory,  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  the  exercise  of  sovereign 
rights  by  the  Republic  of  Panama. 

All  railway  and  property  rights  possessed  by  Panama  pass 
to  the  United  States.  The  right  is  granted  to  the  United  States 
to  use  its  police  and  military  forces  and  to  build  fortifications  at 
its  discretion  and  at  all  times  for  the  protection  of  the  canal. 

In  many  of  its  details  the  treaty  follows  the  stipulations  of 
the  rejected  Colombian  treaty,  but  it  differs  from  that  in  grant- 
ing to  the  United  States  absolute  sovereignty  in  the  Canal 
Zone,  a  power  that  has  been  of  incalculable  advantage  in  con- 
structing the  canal. 

The  Yellow  Fever  Mosquito. — Before  the  Americans 
could  begin  work  the  Isthmus  had  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  up, 
made  a  healthful  place  of  abode.  In  this  task  the  great  dis- 
coveries that  were  made  by  a  board  of  U.  S.  army  surgeons  in 


Gathering  Bananas  in  Panama 


25 


26  UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTOBY 

Havana,  in  1900,  proving  that  yellow  fever  was  transmitted 
from  one  person  to  another  by  mosquitoes  and  in  no  other 
way,  were  of  the  first  value. 

There  were  four  of  these  surgeons,  one  of  whom  was  immune 
and  took  no  part  in  the  tests  which  resulted  in  the  discovery. 
The  other  three — Walter  Reed,  James  Carroll  and  Jesse  W. 
Lazear — conducted  the  experiments. 

Carroll  and  Lazear  permitted  themselves  to  be  bitten  by 
infected  mosquitoes. 

Both  caught  the  disease.  Carroll  recovered,  but  Lazear 
died — a  martyr  to  science  and  to  the  human  race. 

The  story  of  the  heroism  displayed  by  these  surgeons  and  by 
American  soldiers  who  offered  themselves  for  the  tests  is  too 
long  to  be  told  here.  It  is  to  be  found  in  various  publications 
and  should  be  read  by  everyone  who  admires  coui-age  of  the 
highest  order  and  unselfish  devotion  to  duty.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  inspiring  in  human  history. 

The  Malarial  Mosquito. — A  similar  discovery — that  ma- 
laria is  transmitted  by  another  type  of  mosquito,  and  in  no  other 
way — had  been  made  in  1898  by  Major  Ronald  Ross,  a  surgeon 
of  the  British  army  in  India. 

In  Cuba  and  Egypt. — Both  these  mosquito  theories  had 
been  applied  in  Havana  in  1901  and  had  been  completely  suc- 
cessful in  suppressing  yellow  fever  and  in  greatly  reducing  the 
number  of  cases  of  malaria.  The  malarial  theory  also  had  been 
applied  about  the  same  time  along  the  line  of  the  Suez  canal  in 
Egypt  with  completely  successful  results. 

Yellow  Fever  Banished. — In  January  1905,  the  second  year 
of  American  occupation,  there  occurred  an  outbreak  of  yellow 
fever  on  the  Isthmus  which  lasted  for  the  entire  year  and  resulted 
in  the  death  of  35  Americans.  It  was  suppressed  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  methods  prescribed  by  the  discoverers  of  the  theory 


Main  Street,  Culebra,  Before  American  Occupation 


27 


28  UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY         , 

— that  is,  vigorous  warfare  on  mosquitoes  and  complete  segrega- 
tion of  the  victims.  Since  then  there  has  been  no  case  origina- 
ting on  the  Isthmus. 

There  can  be  no  new  case  of  yellow  fever  unless  there  be  a 
victim  of  the  disease  for  the  mosquito  to  bite. 

Without  a  victim  the  mosquito  has  nothing  to  carry  and  is 
thrown  out  of  business. 

Malaria  Restricted. — With  malaria  the  case  is  different. 
The  victim  of  yellow  fever  dies  or  gets  well  and  ceases  to  be  a 
source  of  germ  supply.  The  victim  of  malaria  carries  the  germs 
in  his  system  for  years  and  is  a  continual  source  of 
supply. 

It  is  thus  virtually  impossible  to  banish  malaria,  but  it  can 
be  restricted  by  the  use  of  screens  for  houses  and  by  large  doses 
of  quinine.  This  has  been  done  in  the  Canal  Zone  with  the 
result  of  reducing  the  number  of  cases  one-third. 

During  six  years  the  Sanitary  Department  of  the  Canal 
Commission  distributed  free  among  its  employes  15,600  pounds 
avoirdupois  of  quinine,  109,200,000  grains,  an  average  of  2,600 
pounds,  18,200,000  grains  a  year. 

A  Healthful  Canal  Zone. — The  cost  of  making  the  part  of 
the  Isthmus  occupied  by  Americans  healthful  has  been  very 
great.  The  work  included  not  only  mosquito  warfare  but  all 
activities  in  the  interest  of  public  health — hospitals,  quarantine, 
street-cleaning,  garbage  collection,  water-supply,  sewer  construc- 
tion and  street  paving.  The  average  annual  outlay  for  all  these 
purposes  during  the  period  of  canal  construction  has  been  about 
$1,900,000,  and  the  total  outlay,  when  the  canal  is  completed, 
will  be  about  $20,000,000.  For  sanitation  proper  the  total 
outlay  will  be  about  $6,000,000. 

A  Wise  Expenditure. — That  it  was  a  wise  as  well  as  a 
necessary  expenditure,  cannot  be  questioned.     Without  it  the 


UISrCLE   SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  29 

canal  could  not  have  been  built  for  a  working  force  could  not 
have  been  retained  on  the  job. 

A  Tropical  American  State. — What  the  American  canal 
builders  had  to  do  on  the  Isthmus  was  to  create  a  North  American 
state  in  the  heart  of  a  Central  American  Republic.  They  had 
not  only  to  make  the  Canal  Zone  healthful,  but  to  build  dwellings 
for  the  canal  forces,  provide  a  food  supply,  and  create  a  form  of 
government,  with  school,  court  and  police  systems.  Before 
work  could  be  begun  they  had  to  assemble  a  working  force, 
collect  an  operating  plant  and  establish  great  machine  shops  to 
put  the  huge  machinery  of  the  plant  together  and  keep  it  in 
repair. 

A  Colossal  Task. — -This  was  a  new  field  of  labor  for  American 
effort  and  energy  and  of  really  colossal  proportions.  Within 
three  years  it  was  accomplished  and  at  the  end  of  that  period  the 
work  of  active  canal  construction  began  with  full  vigor. 

Labor  and  Equipment. — A  working  force  of  about  40,000 
men  was  assembled,  and  lodged  in  excellent  quarters.  A  food 
and  other  necessary  supply  system  was  in  working  order  which 
provided  easily  and  satisfactorily  for  the  wants  of  60,000  persons 
a  day.  An  operating  plant  was  assembled  which  was  without 
parallel  in  dimensions  and  efficiency  in  similar  work  anywhere  in 
the   world. 

The  Starting  Point. — January  1907  was  the  starting  point 
for  grand  assault  on  the  actual  task  of  canal  construction.  A 
lock  canal,  rather  than  one  at  sea  level,  had  been  decreed  by  Cong- 
ress, two  Commissions  in  succession,  each  with  its  own  chief 
engineer,  had  grappled  successfully  with  the  problems  of  prepar- 
ation, and  a  third  Commission,  composed  mainly  of  trained 
engineers  of  the  Army  and  Navy,  was  about  to  take  charge  of 
the  great  task  of  construction,  under  the  leadership,  as  Chairman 
and  Chief  Engineer,  of  one  of  its  members.  Col.  George  W.  Goe- 


UNCLE   SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  31 

thals,  who  was  destined  to  demonstrate  his  pre-eminent  fitness 
for  the  position. 

A  Geat  Task. — Time  was  to  prove  that  the  task  in  hand 
was  far  more  difficult  than  the  best  expert  engineering,  both 
of  the  United  States  and  of  Europe,  had  anticipated. 

Physical  Layout. — The  hne  of  the  canal  across  the  Isthmus 
runs  through  low  lying  land  from  the  Atlantic  for  a  distance  of 
about  30  miles  when  it  strikes  the  foothills  of  the  mountains  of 
the  Continental  Divide.  The  foothills  and  mountains  cover  a 
distance  of  nearly  9  miles.  After  passing  this  obstruction  the 
canal  line  runs  through  low  lying  land  to  the  Pacific. 

Chagres  Valley. — From  the  mountains  and  foothills  of  the 
Divide,  there  stretches  away  toward  the  Atlantic  on  either  side 
of  a  broad  valley  a  line  of  hills.  These  hills  approach  each  other 
as  they  near  the  Atlantic  till  they  are  within  a  mile  and  a  half  of 
each  other  at  Gatun.  The  valley  lies  between  the  mountains 
and  the  hills  in  the  shape  of  a  horse  shoe  with  its  opening  toward 
the  Atlantic. 

The  Gatun  Dam. — Into  this  valley  the  Chagres  River  and 
several  other  streams  pour  their  waters.  The  canal  plan  places 
a  great  dam  at  the  opening  of  the  horse  shoe  and  impounds  all 
these  waters,  making  a  huge  reservoir  covering  164  square 
miles.  When  full,  the  level  of  this  lake  is  87  feet  above  the  mean 
level  of  the  sea. 

Improving  Nature. — If  nature  had  intended  to  make  a 
mountain  lake  on  this  part  of  the  Isthmus,  like  the  lakes  among 
many  other  mountains  of  the  world,  she  would  have  brought  the 
lines  of  encircling  hills  together  at  this  point  and  the  thing  would 
have  been  done,  and  the  work  of  the  canal  builders  would  have 
been  greatly  simplified.  They  would  have  been  required  only 
to  cut  a  passage  through  the  Divide. 

Making  the  Lake. — What  they  had  to  do  was  to  cut  a 


32  UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

passage  through  the  Divide  and  transport  the  material  removed 
thirty  miles  and  make  a  dam  out  of  it  for  the  closing  of  the  valley. 

The  most  eminent  engineers  of  the  world  estimated  that  the 
amount  of  excavation  required  for  this  work  would  be  about 
104,000,000  cubic  yards.  The  actual  amount  has  been  nearly  or 
quite  double  that. 

The  same  expert  authorities  estimated  the  amount  of  exca- 
vation due  to  slides  or  breaks  in  the  cut  through  the  mountain 
range  at  500,000  cubic  yards.     It  exceeds  25,000,000. 

Work  and  Cost. — Behold  an  object  lesson  in  honest,  intelli- 
gent and  efficient  management! 

In  October  1908,  the  Canal  Commission  adopted  $375,000,- 
000  as  its  estimate  of  the  final  cost  of  the  canal,  including  the 
payment  of  $40,000,000  to  the  French  Company,  $10,000,000 
to  the  Panama  Republic  for  the  Canal  Zone,  and  $8,000,000  of 
loans  to  the  Panama  Railway  Company  for  construction  of  a 
new  line. 

Since  that  time,  the  amount  of  excavation  upon  which  that 
estimate  was  based  has  been  increased  by  slides  and  other  causes 
at  least  one-third — over  33,000,000  cubic  yards — yet  the  canal 
has  been  completed  more  than  a  year  ahead  of  time  and  several 
million  dollars  of  the  sum  estimated  will  be  turned  back  into 
the  U.  S.  treasury  or  used  for  the  fortifications  of  the  canal. 

Is  there  a  parallel  for  this  achievement  in  any  great  public 
work  in  this  or  any  other  country? 

And  not  a  suspicion  of  "graft"  has  attended  the  work  from 
its  beginning  to  the  end! 

A  Great  Water  Bridge. — The  canal  itself  is  unlike  any  other 
in  the  world.  It  is  in  reality  a  great  bridge  of  water,  87  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  extending  nearly  the  entire  width  of 
the  Isthmus.     Gatun  Lake  constitutes  the  larger  part    of    it. 

To  reach  the  surface  of  the  lake,  vessels  must  be  lifted  87 


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33 


34  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

feet  and  this  is  done  by  means  of  locks,  the  largest  ever  built. 
There  are  three  pairs  of  these,  on  each  side  of  the  Isthmus, 
making  12  in  all,  and  their  combined  lift  is  87  feet. 

On  the  Atlantic  side  the  three  pairs  are  in  series,  like  a  flight 
of  steps,  and  vessels  pass  from  one  directly  to  another. 

On  the  Pacific  side  there  are  two  pairs  at  one  point  and  one  at 
another,  with  a  small  lake,  about  a  mile  in  length  between  them. 

Size  of  Gatun  Dam. — The  water  of  the  Gatun  Lake  is  held 
in  place  by  the  Gatun  Dam,  which  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
long,  measured  on  its  crest,  a  half  mile  wide  at  its  base,  and 
105  feet  high. 

It  contains  21,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material,  half  mingled 
earth  and  rock  brought  from  Culebra  Cut,  and  half  an  im- 
permeable mixture  of  sand  and  clay  pumped  into  it  by  hydraulic 
dredges.     This  latter  material  forms  the  core  of  the  dam. 

The  Spillway. — The  spillway  of  the  dam  is  a  concrete-lined 
passage  285  feet  wide  and  1200  feet  long  which  has  been 
constructed  through  a  hill  of  rock  which  stands  nearly  in  the 
center  of  the  dam. 

At  its  entrance  from  the  lake  a  concrete  dam  in  the  form  of 
the  arc  of  a  circle  has  been  erected,  and  on  the  top  of  this  gates 
are  placed  for  regulating  the  level  of  water  in  the  lake. 

The  spillway  and  the  lock  gates  are  in  reality  portions  of  the 
dam  in  that  they  hold  back  the  water  to  its  maximum  level  of 
87  feet. 

When  the  water  reaches  a  level  above  87  feet  the  gates  are 
openvid  and  the  surplus  water  runs  oflF. 

Electricity  for  the  Canal. — Connected  with  the  spillway 
is  a  hydroelectric  plant,  operated  by  water  from  the  lake  and 
capable  of  generating  sufficient  electricity  to  operate  all  the  locks 
and  other  machinery  of  the  canal,  light  the  canal  and  Canal  Zone 
villages,  and  operate  and  light  the  Panama  Railroad. 


35 


36  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Culebra  Cut. — Culebra  Cut,  which  is  the  name  of  the  pas- 
sage through  the  mountain  range,  is  an  arm  of  Gatun  Lake.  It 
is  nearly  9  miles  long,  its  channel  has  a  bottom  width  of  300 
feet,  and  in  making  it  100,000,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  and 
rock  have  been  removed,  or  nearly  double  the  original  estimate. 

It  has  a  depth  of  45  feet  of  water  throughout,  and  its  water 
level  is  that  of  Gatun  Lake.  It  extends  from  Bas  Obispo,  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  Gatun  Lake  and  the  valley  of  the  Chagres, 
to  Pedro  Miguel  where  the  first  pair  of  locks  on  the  Pacific  side 
are  placed. 

Length  of  Water  Bridge. — The  water  bridge,  therefore, 
reaches  from  the  Gatun  dam,  through  the  Culebra  Cut  to  Pedro 
Miguel,  a  distance  of  about  34  miles.  The  lock  gates  and  small 
dams  on  either  side  correspond  to  the  dam,  spillway  and  gates  at 
Gatun  in  holding  the  waters  of  Gatun  Lake  in  place. 

Depth  of  Water. — The  width  of  the  channel  in  the  water 
bridge  varies  from  1,000  feet  in  the  larger  portion  of  the  Gatun 
Lake  to  300  feet  in  Culebra  Cut.  It  is  nowhere  less  than  300 
feet.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  channel  varies  from  87  feet  in 
the  lake  to  45  feet  in  Culebra  Cut. 

There  are  approach  channels  in  both  oceans,  each  500  feet 
wide  and  45  feet  deep,  extending  from  deep  water  in  the  ocean 
to  Gatun  locks  on  the  Atlantic  side  and  to  Miraflores  locks  on 
the  Pacific  side. 

Line  of  the  CanaL — By  consulting  the  accompanying  map 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  line  of  the  canal  does  not  run  east  and 
west,  as  is  quite  generally  supposed,  but  from  northwest  to  south- 
east. The  Pacific  entrance  is  22|  miles  east  of  that  on  the 
Atlantic. 

Length  of  the  CanaL — The  entire  length  of  the  canal 
from  deep  water  in  the  Atlantic  to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific  is 
about  50  miles — from  shore-line  to  shore-line,  about  40  miles. 


37 


38  UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Locks  and  Lock  Walls. — The  locks  are  the  largest  in  the 
world,  and  are  all  of  the  same  useable  dimensions — 1000  feet  long 
and  110  feet  wide.  They  can  accommodate  easily  the  largest 
ships  yet  constructed.  Their  walls  are  of  massive  concrete, 
from  45  to  60  feet  wide  at  the  base  and  reaching  to  a  height 
of  81  feet.  They  contain  about  5,000,000  cubic  yards  of 
concrete. 

Lock  Gates. — The  lock  gates  are  steel  structures  seven 
feet  thick,  65  feet  long,  and  from  47  to  82  feet  high.  They 
weigh  from  390  to  730  tons  each.  Ninety-two  leaves  are  re- 
quired for  the  entire  canal,  the  total  weighing  60,000  tons. 

The  leaves  are  shells  of  structural  steel  covered  with  a 
sheathing  of  steel  riveted  to  the  girder  framework.  Each  leaf 
is  divided  horizontally  into  two  separate  compartments.  The 
lower  compartment  is  watertight,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  leaf  so  buoyant  that  it  will  practically  float  in  the  water  and 
thus  largely  relieve  the  stress  upon  the  bearings  by  which  it  is 
hinged  to  the  wall. 

T^his  watertight  compartment  is  subdivided  vertically  into 
three  sections,  each  independently  watertight  so  that  if  the  shell 
should  be  broken  in  any  way  or  begin  to  leak,  only  one  section 
would  probably  be  affected. 

An  air  shaft  26  inches  in  diameter  runs  from  the  bottom  com- 
partment up  to  the  top  of  the  gate,  and  this  also  is  watertight 
where  it  passes  through  the  upper  half  of  the  leaf. 

Intermediate  gates  are  used  in  all  except  one  pair  of  the  locks, 
in  order  to  save  water  and  time;  if  desired,  in  locking  small 
vessels  through,  the  gates  being  so  placed  as  to  divide  the  locks 
into  chambers  600  and  400  feet  long,  respectively. 

Ninety -five  per  cent,  of  the  vessels  navigating  the  high  seas 
are  less  than  600  feet  long. 

Passage  of  the  Canal. — The  best  way  in  which  to  get  a  cor- 


UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY         39 

rect  conception  of  the  canal  as  a  whole  is  to  accompany  a  vessel 
from  ocean  to  ocean  as  it  passes  through  it. 

Starting  four  miles  at  sea  in  the  Atlantic,  a  vessel  enters  the 
approach  channel  and  passing  by  the  city  of  Colon  advances  to 
the  lower  lock  at  Gatun,  the  water  in  which  is  on  a  level  with 
that  of  the  sea  and  45  feet  in  depth. 

Before  entering  the  lock  the  vessel  is  tied  up  to  a  long  wall 
or  pier  which  extends  into  the  channel  between  the  two  sets  of 
locks  for  a  distance  of  about  1,000  feet. 

Here  it  is  turned  over  to  the  canal  operators  who  take  com- 
plete charge  of  it  and  are  responsible  for  it  during  its  passage 
through  the  locks.  They  place  a  representative  of  their  own  on 
the  bridge  and  another  in  the  engine  room. 

The  worst  accidents  which  have  occurred  to  vessels  in  locks 
have  been  caused  by  an  engineer  mistaking  a  signal  from  the 
bridge  and  going  ahead  when  he  should  have  gone  backward, 
thus  ramming  and  breaking  a  lock  gate. 

No  Accident  Possible. — This  is  not  possible  at  Panama. 
No  vessel  is  allowed  to  pass  through  the  locks  under  its  own 
power. 

Vessels  are  taken  through  by  electric  locomotives  running  in 
cogged  tracks  on  the  approach  and  lock  walls. 

Every  movement  of  the  ship  is  made  in  full  view  of  those 
who  are  in  control  of  it. 

Safety  Chain  Device. — Before  the  vessel  in  tow  can  enter 
the  first  lock  it  must  pass  a  great  chain  stretched  across  the 
channel.  If  all  is  going  well,  the  chain  is  dropped  into  a  groove 
in  the  concrete  floor  of  the  channel,  and  the  vessel  enters  the 
lock.  If,  by  any  chance,  the  vessel  is  moving  too  rapidly, 
the  chain  remains  in  position  and  pays  out  slowly  under 
hydraulic  control  till  it  brings  the  ship  to  a  stop. 

Entering  the  First  Lock. — Having  passed  the  chain,  the 


40  UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

vessel  enters  the  lower  lock.  The  gates  are  closed  behind  it,  and 
through  openings  in  the  floor,  water  enters,  filling  the  lock 
chamber  to  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  lock  above. 

Lifted  to  the  Second. — When  this  level  is  reached,  the 
inflow  of  water  is  stopped.  The  gates  between  the  lower  lock 
and  the  one  above  are  then  opened,  and  the  vessel  is  towed  into 
the  second  lock. 

Reaching  the  Lake. — When  it  is  inside,  the  gates  behind  it 
are  closed,  and  water  is  again  let  in  through  the  floor  openings 
till  the  level  in  the  second  lock  is  raised  to  that  of  the  third  above. 
When  this  is  accomplished  the  gates  in  front  are  opened,  and 
the  vessel  is  towed  forward  into  the  third  and  last  lock,  the 
water  level  of  which  is  that  of  the  lake.  It  is  then  ready  to  pro- 
ceed under  its  own  power  on  its  journey  through  Gatun  Lake. 

Full  Speed. — The  channel  through  Gatun  Lake  varies  in 
width  from  1,000  feet  to  500  feet,  and  is  about  24  miles  in  length. 
A  vessel  can  steam  at  full  speed  through  this  till  it  reaches  the 
entrance  of  Culebra  Cut. 

Slower  Through  Culebra  Cut. — Here  the  Channel  narrows 
to  300  feet  at  the  bottom.  The  vessel  still  proceeds  under  its 
own  power,  but  at  a  reduced  speed  through  Culebra  Cut. 

A  Picturesque  Journey. — The  irregular  lines  of  thickly 
clad  hills  which  encircle  the  lake  make  the  passage  through  it  one 
of  much  natural  beauty,  but  the  picturesque  portion  of  the  journey 
is  reached  when  the  vessel  enters  Culebra  Cut.  Here  for  the 
first  time  the  spectator  gains  a  conception  of  the  tremendous 
task  which  has  been  accomplished. 

It  is  not  a  full  conception  for  he  is  sailing  on  a  water  level 
45  or  47  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  excavation  which  was  made 
and  the  height  of  the  banks  is  diminished  to  that  extent. 

Still  as  he  passes  between  the  towering  walls  of  the  mountain 
range,  if  he  be  a  true  American,  he  will  feel  a  thrill  of  pride  and 


41 


42        UNCLE  Sam's  Panama  canal  and  avorld  history 

patriotic  enthusiasm  at  the  work  which  his  countrymen  have 
accomphshed. 

The  Pacific  Locks. — Leaving  the  Culebra  Cut  the  vessel 
advances  to  the  first  pair  of  locks  on  the  Pacific  side,  at  Pedro 
Miguel. 

The  vessel  is  tied  up  at  the  approach  wall  and  is  towed  into  the 
lock,  as  at  Gatun,  the  water  level  in  it  being  that  of  the  lake. 

Past  Pedro  MigueL — When  inside  the  lock  the  gates  behind 
the  ship  are  closed,  and  through  the  openings  in  the  floor  the 
water  is  let  out  until  the  level  in  the  lock  is  that  of  the  small  lake 
below. 

Lake  Miraflores. — The  vessel  then  passes  into  Lake  Mira- 
flores,  a  small  body  of  water  about  a  mile  in  extent,  and 
proceeds  under  its  own  power  till  the  first  of  the  two  locks  at 
Miraflores  is  reached. 

The  Final  Locks. — Here  it  enters  the  first  lock,  under  the 
same  conditions  as  prevailed  at  Pedro  Miguel.  The  gates  are 
closed  and  the  water  in  the  lock  is  let  out  into  the  second  lock 
below  until  the  two  are  brought  to  the  same  level.  Then  the 
vessel  is  towed  forward  into  the  second  and  the  gates  are  closed 
behind  it. 

Finally,  the  water  in  the  second  is  let  out  into  the  approach 
channel  and  the  level  in  the  lake  is  reduced  to  that  of  the  sea. 
The  gates  are  then  opened  in  front  of  it,  and  it  is  ready  to  proceed 
into  the  Pacific  ocean. 

Time  of  Passage. — The  time  consumed  in  the  journey 
ranges  from  10  to  12  hours  according  to  the  speed  of  the  ship. 

The  time  consumed  in  passing  the  locks  is  three  hours,  one 
and  a  half  hours  in  the  three  locks  at  Gatun  and  about  the  same 
time  in  the  three  on  the  Pacific  side,  or  a  half  hour  in  each  lock. 

Value  of  Electricity. — The  wonderful  development  of 
electricity  as  an  agent  in  the  great  works  of  man  is  demonstrated 


UNCLE   SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  43 

in  a  very  impressive  way  in  the  operation  of  the  eanal,  most  of 
all  in  the  locks. 

Single  Control. — One  man,  in  a  building  upon  the  top  of 
the  lock  walls,  controls  every  movement  of  a  ship  passing  through 
the  locks.  He  has  before  him  a  control  board  containing  a 
representation,  part  model  and  part  diagrammatic,  of  the 
flight  of  locks  controlled  by  the  respective  series  of  switches. 
Standing  at  his  switch-board  the  operator  throws  the  switches, 
and,  in  response  to  his  action,  sees  before  him  in  model  or  dia- 
gram the  progress  of  the  fender  chains  as  they  rise  and  fall,  the 
movement  of  the  lock  gates  inch  by  inch,  the  opening  and  clos- 
ing of  the  valves  which  let  the  water  in  and  out  of  the  locks  and 
the  gradual  rise  or  fall  of  the  water  in  the  lock  chambers,  reveal- 
ing to  him  the  exact  position  of  the  vessel  at  every  stage  of  its 
progress.  The  switches  controlling  the  various  motors,  together 
with  their  indicators,  are  mounted  upon  the  board  in  the  same 
relative  position  as  the  machines  themselves  in  the  lock 
walls. 

The  system  is  interlocking,  so  that  certain  motors  cannot  be 
started  in  a  certain  direction  until  other  motors  are  operated  in  a 
proper  manner  to  obtain  consistent  operation  on  the  whole,  and 
to  avoid  any  undesirable  or  dangerous  combinations  in  the 
positions  of  the  valves,  gates,  or  fender  chains.  In  this  way  and 
by  the  use  of  limit  switches  the  factor  of  the  personal  equation  in 
operating  the  machines  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  almost  me- 
chanical accuracy  being  obtained. 

Lighting  the  Canal.^ — The  locks  are  brilliantly  lighted  by 
electricity  in  lamps  grouped  upon  concrete  poles  30  feet  in  height. 
The  lamps  are  clustered  inider  concrete  hoods  in  such  a 
manner  as  not  to  strike  the  eye  while  illuminating  clearly  all  parts 
of  the  structures. 

Along  the  line  of  the  channel  there  are  range  lights  of  elee- 


44  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

tricity  except  in  the  floating  buoys  marking  the  channel  through 
Gatun  Lake  where  acetylene  gas  is  used. 

The  most  powerful  range  lights,  in  high  concrete  light- 
houses, are  placed  at  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  entrances.  They 
will  be  visible  for  from  12  to  18  nautical  miles  at  sea. 

World  Wide  Benefits. — By  opening  a  new  ocean  highway 
which  will  shorten  great  trade  routes  by  thousands  of  miles, 
all  nations  will  benefit,  for  the  inevitable  effect  will  be  to  cheapen 
transportation  and  reduce  the  price  of  commodities. 

The  new  canal  gives  the  continent  of  North  America  a  con- 
tinuous coast  line  from  Labrador  to  Alaska,  thus  securing  for 
the  United  States  control  of  the  commerce  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere. 

It  reduces  the  distance  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco 
from  13,135  miles  to  5,263 — a  saving  of  7,873  miles. 

It  brings  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  most  of  the  large 
commerce  of  which  is  controlled  by  Europe,  3,000  miles  nearer 
to  the  L^nited  States  than  to  Europe,  with  the  probable  result  of 
ultimately  shifting  control  to  the  United  States. 

It  will  shorten  the  distance  between  New  York  and  Yoko- 
hama by  more  than  3,000  miles,  between  New  York  and  Mel- 
bourne by  nearly  the  same  distance,  and  between  New  York  and 
Hongkong  by  245  miles.  This  will  give  the  United  States  the 
advantage  in  competing  with  Europe  for  the  commerce  of  Japan, 
and  place  it  on  equal  terms  with  Europe  so  far  as  distance  is 
concerned,  in  competing  for  the  commerce  of  Australasia,  China 
and  the  Philippines. 

Valuable  Savings. — Congress  has  acted  wisely  in  accepting 
the  suggestions  of  Col.  Goethals  in  regard  to  inducements  for 
the  shipping  of  the  world  to  make  use  of  the  Panama  Canal.  It 
has  decreed  that  supply  stations,  under  government  control, 
be  maintained  at  both  ends  of  the  canal  bj-  means  of  which  coal. 


45 


46  UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

fuel  oil,  cold  storage  provisions  and  all  other  necessary  supplies, 
as  well  as  repairs,  will  he  furnished  to  vessels  passing  through 
the  canal  at  fixed  and  moderate  prices.  This  will  permit  vessels 
sailing  from  European  and  other  distant  ports  through  the 
canal  to  cut  their  bunker  and  provision  spaces  over  half,  add 
thereby  to  their  cargo  capacity  and  make  valuable  savings. 

Cheaper  Commodities  Sure. — Whatever  else  may  be  the 
effect  of  this  new  ocean  highway,  cheaper  commodities  for  the 
world  can  safely  be  predicted.  Direct  competition  along  many 
great  trade  lines  cannot  fail  to  secure  this  result. 

By  bringing  the  nations  of  the  earth  into  closer  i-elations,  and 
by  developing  the  commerce  of  one  with  another  and  enhancing 
its  value,  the  peace  of  the  world  will  be  more  firmly  secured,  for 
the  cost  of  wars,  in  disturbing  and  destroying  commerce,  will 
be  an  increasingly  powerful  influence  against  them. 

Wanted  American  Ships. — According  to  the  most  trust- 
worthy authorities,  when  the  Panama  Canal  is  thrown  open  to 
the  commerce  of  the  world,  on  Jan.  1,  1915,  there  will  be  in  the 
merchant  marine  of  the  United  States  only  about  30  ships  of 
sufficient  size  and  capacity  to  use  it  with  profit. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  most  shipping  authorities  that  no  ship  of 
less  than  3,000  gross  tonnage,  can  do  a  profitable  business  through 
the  canal,  and  some  of  these  authorities  place  the  limit  at  4,000 
gross  tonnage. 

Sailing  Vessels. — There  is  slight  probability  that  sailing 
vessels  will  use  the  canal.  They  would  have  to  be  towed  from 
deep  water  in  the  ocean,  as  well  as  through  the  canal,  and,  in 
the  case  of  the  Bay  of  Panama,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  they  would 
in  nearly  all  cases  have  to  be  towed  about  100  miles  before  enter- 
ing and  after  leaving  the  canal  for  that  bay  is  deep  and  sheltered 
and  nearly  devoid  of  wind  during  most  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  caused  a  great  reduction  in 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  47 

the  number  of  sailing  vessels,  and  the  effect  of  the  Panama  Canal 
is  certain  to  cause  a  still  further  reduction. 

An  Investment  Ruined — The  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal  will  ruin  instantly  and  irretrievably  the  Tehuantepec 
railway  route  across  the  isthmus  of  that  name.  This  was  30 
years  in  building  and  cost  the  Mexican  government  $60,000,000. 
It  was  opened  in  January,  1907,  and  although  it  has  had  con- 
siderable, traffic,  it  has  been  an  unprofitable  investment,  its 
gross   revenue  being  only  about  $3,000,000. 

Hawaiian  Ship  Company. — The  chief  customer  of  the 
Tehuantepec  Route  is  the  Hawaiian  Steamship  Company  which 
formerly  operated  a  line  of  steamships  from  New  York  around 
the  Horn  to  Hawaii  and  San  Francisco.  Since  1907  the  shijjs  of 
the  company  have  used  the  Tehuantepec  Route,  but  they  will 
abandon  it  immediately  when  the  Panama  route  is  opened. 

The  company  has  the  largest  fleet  of  American  merchant 
ships  afloat,  18  in  all,  ranging  in  capacity  from  5,400  to  8,500 
gross  tonnage,  and  is  building  five  others  with  a  gross  tonnage  of 
10,000  each. 

These  ships  will  supply  nearly  the  entire  commercial  fleet 
of  the  United  States  for  Panama  Canal  traffic  on  January  1, 
1915.  There  are  only  a  few  others  of  adequate  capacity,  on  the 
Atlantic  side,  and  only  two  or  three  on  the  Pacific  side.  There 
is  considerable  talk  about  building  others  but  few  of  the  projects 
in  that  direction  have  taken  definite  form. 

American  Ships  Favored. — The  new  Panama  Canal  Act, 
passed  in  1912,  provides  that  foreign  built  vessels,  owned  wholly 
by  citizens  of  the  United  States,  chartered  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  any  State  thereof,  whose  presidents  and 
managing  directors  are  citizens  of  the  United  States,  may  be 
registered  as  vessels  of  the  United  States  and  engage  in  foi'eign 
trade  only. 


48  UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

The  same  act  provides  that  all  materials  of  foreign  production 
which  may  be  necessary  for  the  construction,  repair  and  equip- 
ment of  vessels  built  in  the  United  States,  shall  be  admitted  free 
of  duty. 

Shipbuilding  Cost. — It  is  estimated  by  ship  builders  and 
owners  in  the  United  States  that  it  costs  from  40  to  50  per  cent, 
more  to  build  a  vessel  in  the  United  States  than  in  Europe, 
chiefly  because  of  the  difl^erence  in  wages  and  in  cost  of  material. 
The  new  Canal  Act,  it  is  thought,  will  lead  to  an  increase  in 
our  merchant  marine  because  of  the  provisions  cited  above. 

President  Taft's  Views. — In  signing  the  act,  on  August  24, 
1912,  President  Taft  said:  "The  bill  permits  the  registry  of 
foreign-built  vessels  as  vessels  of  the  United  States  for  foreign 
trade,  and  it  also  permits  the  admission  without  duty  of  materials 
for  the  construction  and  repair  of  vessels  in  the  United  States. 
This  is  objected  to  on  the  ground  that  it  will  interfere  with  the 
shipbuilding  interest  of  the  United  States.  I  cannot  concur  in 
this  view.  The  number  of  vessels  of  the  United  States  engaged 
in  foreign  trade  is  so  small  that  the  work  done  by  the  present 
shipyards  is  almost  wholly  that  of  constructing  vessels  for  the 
coastwise  trade  or  Government  vessels.  In  other  words,  there 
is  substantially  no  business  for  building  ships  in  the  foreign  trade 
in  the  shipyards  of  the  United  States  which  will  be  injured  by 
this  new  provision.  It  is  hoped  that  this  registry  of  foreign- 
built  ships  in  American  foreign  trades  will  prove  to  be  a  method 
of  increasing  our  foreign  shipping.  The  experiment  will  hurt  no 
interest  of  ours,  and  we  can  observe  its  operation.  If  it  proves 
to  extend  our  commercial  flag  to  the  high  seas,  it  will  supply  a 
long-felt  want." 

Available  Traffic. — The  pre-eminent  authority  on  canal 
traflic  is  Prof.  Emory  R.  Johnson  of  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia.    He   was   a   member  of  the   Isthmian  Canal  Commission 


49 


50  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

of  1900-01,  known  as  the  Walker  Commission,  and  has  been 
employed  since  by  the  Government  as  its  "special  commissioner 
on  Panama  Canal  traffic  and  tolls."  His  report  on  the  subject, 
published  by  the  Government  in  1912,  is  an  inexhaustible  mine 
of  information  from  which  I  shall  quote  freely. 

Ten  and  One  Half  Millions  in  1915. — A  careful  investi- 
gation of  traffic  statistics,  made  in  1901,  showed  an  available 
traffic  for  a  canal  at  Panama  of  about  5,000,000  tons.  In 
1910,  similar  investigations  showed  an  available  traffic  of 
over  8,000,000  tons.  At  the  same  ratio  of  increase,  the  available 
traffic  when  the  canal  is  opened  in  1915  will  be  10,500,000 
tons 

Will  It  Pay? — The  total  cost  of  the  canal,  including  the 
$40,000,000  paid  to  the  French  Canal  Company,  and  $10,000,000 
to  Panama,  will  be  about  $375,000,000.  Its  operating  and 
maintenance  expenses  will  be  about  $3,500,000  a  year.  Its 
government  and  sanitation  expense  about  $500,000  a  year. 

The  interest  on  $375,000,000  at  3  per  cent.,  will  be  $11,250,- 
000.  There  is  an  annual  payment  to  the  Republic  of  Panama 
by  the  United  States  of  $250,000.  The  sum  of  these  four  items 
is  $15,500,000.  If  to  this  be  added  1  per  cent,  per  annum  on 
$375,000,000  to  accumulate  a  fund  to  amortize  the  investment, 
the  total  annual  expense  will  be  $19,250,000. 

First  Ten  Years. — At  the  toll  fixed  by  Congress,  $1.20  per 
net  ton,  the  same  as  that  of  the  Suez  Canal,  with  a  traffic  be- 
ginning in  1915  with  10,500,000  tons,  and  increasing  at  the  rate 
of  CO  per  cent,  a  year,  as  the  Suez  traffic  has,  the  Panama  Canal 
within  the  first  ten  years  of  operation,  will  earn  more  than 
enough  to  pay  the  estimated  xjperation,  maintenance,  zone  sani- 
tation and  government,  Panama  annuity  and  interest  charges, 
and  it  will  be  possible  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  decade  of 
operation  to  establish  an  amortization  fund. 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WOULD    HISTORY  51 

Division  of  Traffic.  — The  estimated  shipping  using  the 
Panama  Canal  in  1915  and  191G  is  divided  as  follows:  Coast  to 
coast  American,  1,000,000  net  tons;  American  shipping  carrying 
foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States,  720,000  tons;  foreign 
shipping  carrying  commerce  of  the  United  States  to  foreign 
countries,  7,780,000  tons;  total,  10,500,000  tons. 

Amount  of  Income. — At  $1.20  toll  per  net  ton,  the  income 
from  these  three  sources  would  be  $12,600,000.  With  an  annual 
income  of  CO  per  cent,  in  the  volume  of  traffic,  the  income  in 
1925  would  be  $20,400,000. 

Competition  with  Suez. — ^The  Panama  Canal  will  start 
with  less  than  one  half  the  tonnage  which  passed  through  the 
Suez  Canal  in  1912.  The  increase  in  tonnage  of  the  latter  has 
been  more  than  70  per  cent,  during  the  last  10  years. 

Its  total  receipts  in  1912,  $27,300,000,  were  the  largest  in  its 
history.  Its  dividends  to  stockholders  have  steadily  risen  till 
they  have  reached  35  per  cent. 

Under  the  danger  of  loss  of  tonnage  in  competition  with  the 
Panama  Canal,  its  managers  may  reduce  the  toll  charges  below 
the  present  figure  of  $1.20  a  ton,  and  still  feel  certain  of  a  hand- 
some profit.  This  possibility  must  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  estimating  the  earning  capacity  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Closest  Competition. — The  closest  competition  will  be  in 
regard  to  commerce  with  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Japan,  China 
and  the  Philippines.  So  far  as  distance  is  concerned,  the  two 
canals  are  on  ecjual  terms  in  regard  to  that  traffic. 

Benefit  for  United  States. — Under  existing  conditions,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  distance  has  been  against  the  United  States, 
our  country  has  had  a  fair  share  of  the  great  commerce  of 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.  In  1910  the  value  of  that  share 
was  nearly  $50,000,000 — consisting  of  the  export  of  American 


52  UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA   CANAL,   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

manufacturers  to  those  countries,  and  the  import  from  them  of 
wool,  hides  and  other  materials.  Australia's  commerce  amounts 
to  $130  per  inhabitant,  and  that  of  New  Zealand  to  $170  per 
inhabitant,  or  five  times  that  of  the  United  States  per  inhabitant. 

Handicap  Removed. — The  United  States  has  had  its  fair 
share  in  this  great  commerce  in  spite  of  its  distance  handicap. 
What  must  be  the  effect  when  the  handicap  is  removed?  It  is 
only  necessary  to  cite  the  distances  saved  by  the  Panama  Canal 
to  show  that  there  can  be  only  one  answer  to  this  question. 

Savings  Obtained. — The  distance  from  New  York  and 
Adelaide  via  the  Panama  Canal  will  be  1,746  miles  less  than  via 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  To  Melbourne,  the  reduction  will  be 
2,770  miles  and  to  Sydney  3,932  miles.  For  the  voyage  between 
New  York  and  Sydney  vessels  of  10  knots  speed  can  save  15.8 
days.  A  calculation  has  been  made  of  the  fuel  expenses  of  a 
10 J  knot  freight  steamer  whose  average  daily  coal  consumption 
at  sea  is  38  tons.  This  vessel  would  save  about  $3,500  in  coal 
expenses  by  taking  the  Panama  route  instead  of  one  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  on  a  round-trip  voyage  between  New  York 
and  Adelaide.  For  a  round-trip  voyage  between  New  York 
and  Sydney,  the  fuel  expenses  via  Panama  will  be  about  $6,230 
less  than  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  making  this 
and  other  calculations,  the  1912  contract  prices  for  coal  are  taken. 

Coal  Prices. — It  is  assumed  that  the  price  of  coal  at  Colon 
or  Cristobal  will  be  $5  per  ton  and  at  Balboa  $5.50  per  ton. 
These  prices  are  about  $1  above  the  cost  of  coal  delivered  at  the 
end  of  ship's  tackle  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  at  the  present 
time.  Under  present  contracts,  the  United  States  Government 
is  securing  500,000  tons  of  coal  per  annum,  delivered  at  the  end 
of  ship's  tackle  at  Cristobal  for  $4.09|  per  ton.  It  is  believed 
in  making  the  coal  calculations  above  referred  to  that  somewhat 


63 


54  UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

less  than  $1  per  ton  will  amply  defray  overhead  expenses,  de- 
preciation of  fuel  and  lighterage  charges,  and  that  the  United 
States  Government  can,  without  loss,  sell  coal,  delivered  in 
ship's  bunkers,  at  Cristobal  for  $5  per  ton.  The  1912  contract 
prices  for  Welsh  coal  at  Port  Said,  Suez  Canal,  are  from  $6.20 
to  $6.32. 

The  action  of  Congress,  in  decreeing  that  coal  shall  be  sup- 
plied by  the  United  States  Government  at  both  ends  of  the  canal 
at  reasonable  prices,  makes  certain  the  permanent  existence  of 
this  great  inducement  for  vessels  engaged  in  far-eastern  com- 
merce to  use  the  Panama  route. 

National  Benefit. — An  examination  of  the  possibilities  of 
increased  commerce  which  the  shortened  line  of  travel  will  secure 
shows  that  all  sections  of  the  United  States  will  be  benefitted 
thereby. 

Advantages  for  the  South. — The  canal  will  give  the 
Southern  States  for  the  first  time  a  direct  route  for  their  chief 
product,  cotton,  to  the  markets  of  the  Far  East.  Heretofore 
their  shipments  have  gone  partly  by  rail  to  San  Francisco, 
partly  by  vessels  around  the  Horn,  but  mainly  by  way  of  New 
York  and  the  Suez  Canal. 

All  this  will  be  changed.  The  Gulf  ports  will  be  nearer  to  the 
Colon  entrance  of  the  canal  than  New  York  is  by  from  500  to 
760  miles.  They  will  thus  have  the  advantage  over  eastern 
ports  in  the  shipment  of  products  to  the  Orient. 

Japan  and  China. — Japan  and  China  have  for  years  been 
large  purchasers  of  raw  cotton  and  cotton  goods,  and  the  shorter 
route  is  certain  to  make  these  countries  larger  consumers  be- 
cause   of    the    reduction    in    price    caused     by     lower     freight 

rates. 

The  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the  South,  which  have  shown 

such  remarkable  growth,  the  lumber  business,  its  forest  products 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    IIISTOKV  Bo 

— turpentine,  resin,  tar,  etc., — its  fertilizing  industry,  these  also 
are  certain  to  l)e  greatly  benefitted  for  the  same  reason. 

Gulf  Commerce.^rThe  commercial  importance  of  the  Gulf 
ports,  already  advancing,  will  be  greatly  increased  by  the 
opening  of  the  canal.  All  points  south  and  west  of  Lake  Superior, 
Northern  Michigan,  Lake  IVIichigan,  and  a  line  drawn  from 
Chicago  through  Indianapolis,  Frankfort,  Ky.,  and  on  to 
Charleston,  are  nearer  to  New  Orleans  and  to  several  Gulf  ports 
than  to  New  York. 

Distance  is  a  powerful,  though  not  a  controlling  factor,  in 
determining  traffic  routes,  and  there  can  be  no  question  that  the 
Gulf  ports,  through  their  ability  to  bring  the  railway  car  and  the 
steamer  side  by  side  at  terminals,  in  addition  to  their  ability  to 
assure  a  shorter  and  quicker  passage,  will  add  enormously  to 
their  commercial  importance. 

Northeastern  States. — The  Northeastern  section  of  the 
United  States  ranks  first  in  manufacture  and  foreign  commerce. 
It  has  a  large  foreign  trade  in  manufactured  products,  made 
partly  from  domestic  and  partly  from  imported  materials.  A 
portion  of  this  imported  material  comes  from  tropical  and  south- 
temperate  latitudes  of  the  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans — 
nitrate  of  soda  from  Chile;  lumber  and  grain  from  the  Pacific 
coast;  wool,  meats  and  hides  from  Australia;  teas,  silks  and 
mattings  from  the  Orient;  sugar,  rice,  jute,  hemp,  vegetable 
oils  and  gums  from  the  British,  Dutch  and  East  Indies  and 
Oceania. 

Panama  and  Suez. — Europe  secured  a  nearer  market  for 
raw  materials  by  means  of  the  Suez  Canal.  Our  American 
manufacturers  will  obtain  the  same  privilege,  in  equal  measure, 
by  means  of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  gain  for  American  manu- 
facturers cannot  fail  to  go  far  to  put  them  on  an  equal  footing 
with  their  European  competitors. 


56  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Four  Great  Activities. — The  economic  activities  of  the 
Northwestern  States  have  been  divided  by  Prof.  Johnson  into 
four  groups  of  industries: 

1.  Mining,  transportation  and  exportation  of  coal. 

2.  Manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  and  machines  and  tools 
made  of  steel. 

3.  Shipbuilding  and  maritime  interests. 

4.  Various  classes  of  textile  manufacture. 

That  all  these  will  be  benefitted  to  a  degree  which  cannot  be 
predicted  but  which  is  certain  to  be  large,  by  the  opening  of  new 
markets  and  bringing  nearer  the  markets  of  needed  raw  ma- 
terial, no  intelligent  observer  can  doubt. 

The  Central  West. — The  twelve  States  of  the  Central  West 
are  situated  from  500  to  1500  miles  from  the  ocean.  The  trade 
which  the  Panama  Canal  may  bring  to  them  will,  on  an  average, 
be  moved  nearly  1,000  miles  by  railroad. 

While  the  most  important  industrial  resources  of  the  section 
taken  as  a  whole  are  agricultural,  there  are  also  large  manu- 
facturing interests  in  several  of  the  States,  large  coal  fields, 
natural  gas  wells,  and  timber  forests. 

The  opening  of  the  canal,  by  emphasizing  the  commercial 
importance  of  the  Gulf  ports,  and  giving  fresh  impetus  to  the 
work  of  improving  the  great  river  systems,  will  give  the  Central 
West  the  opportunity  to  choose  between  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic 
routes  of  shipment,  and  the  competition  thus  instigated  will 
quicken  industrial  activity  and  secure  better  transportation 
facilities. 

The  Pacific  States. — In  many  ways  the  opening  of  the 
canal  will  be  of  very  great  benefit  to  all  the  States  of  the  Pacific 
Coast.  A  cut  of  7,873  nautical  miles  in  a  total  distance  of  13,135, 
could  not  have  any  other  effect. 

Their  great  interests,  grain,  lumber,  horticulture,  fisheries 


U>fCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  57 

and  mining,  will  all  be  benefitted.  Their  wheat,  barley,  lumber 
and  non-perishable  food  products — nuts,  raisins,  olives  and 
canned  fruits,  now  go  around  the  Horn  to  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  The  shipment  of  fresh  fruit  for  long  distances,  while 
likely  to  continue  to  be  made  largely  by  rail,  is  also  likely,  with 
modern  refrigerating  facilities,  to  be  transported  in  steadily 
increasing  amounts  by  vessels,  as  the  time  of  transit  through 
the  canal  is  diminished  with  the  advancing  speed  of  steamships. 

Larger  Trade  Assured. — The  general  effect  of  the  canal 
upon  the  people  of  the  Pacific  Coast  will  be  to  enable  them  to 
buy  more  cheaply  and  to  carry  on  a  larger  trade  both  domestic 
and  foreign.  The  northern  ports  of  the  Coast  will  become  the 
natural  gateways  for  the  export  trade  of  Idaho,  INIontana  and 
Wyoming  and  for  conmierce  with  British  Columbia.  Puget 
Sound,  by  being  near  to  the  great  ocean  highway  to  the  far 
East,  and  through  its  ability  to  supply  steamers  with  coal,  is 
likely  to  become  an  important  centre  for  the  distribution  of 
Japanese  and  Asiatic  goods. 

Coastwise  Shipping. — It  is  thought  to  be  certain  that  the 
opening  of  the  canal  will  be  followed  by  a  great  increase  in  the 
volume  of  coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States.  The  combined 
tonnage  of  American  ships  at  present  engaged  in  that  trade  on 
the  Atlantic,  Gulf  and  Pacific  seaboards  exceeds  3,500,000. 
During  the  past  decade  the  increase  has  been  38  per  cent.  It 
is  a  large  and  healthily  increasing  business  and  its  operators 
look  for  a  very  considerable  addition  to  its  fleet  of  ships  to  attend 
to  the  larger  volume  of  traffic  which  the  canal  will  bring. 

Foreign  Service. — American  shipping  engaged  in  foreign 
trade  has  declined  steadily  for  several  decades  until  at  present 
only  about  9  per  cent,  of  the  entire  foreign  commerce  of  the 
United  States  is  carried  in  American  bottoms.  Nearly  all 
American  ships  engaged  in  handling  our  foreign  commerce  are 


58  UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

employed  in  our  trade  with  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  Mexico 
and  Caribbean  countries.  Only  a  very  few  are  used  in  our 
long  distance  foreign  trade. 

A  Credit  to  the  Nation. — The  Panama  Canal  is  the  su- 
preme engineering  feat  of  the  ages. 

It  has  been  pronounced  the  greatest  of  the  world's  wonders 
of  work. 

It  has  been  completed  far  ahead  of  the  time  fixed,  for  several 
million  dollars  less  than  the  estimated  cost,  in  a  manner  so  ex- 
cellent as  to  defy  criticism,  and  without  a  shadow  of  scandal  of 
any  sort. 

It  is  the  work  of  Americans  and  the  manner  of  its  accom- 
plishment has  brought  honor  to  the  nation  throughout  the  world. 

It  was  a  great  administrative  as  well  as  a  great  engineering 
task,  for  the  expenditure  of  $375,000,000  had  to  be  regulated  and 
guarded  and  a  colony  of  60,000  souls — the  number  of  the  canal 
workers  and  their  dependents — had  to  be  governed. 

The  Secret  of  Success. — Success,  complete  and  honorable, 
has  been  secured  because  from  beginning  to  end  the  task  has 
been  in  able  and  honest  hands.  Fitness  was  the  sole  test  of 
service,  and  the  baleful  touch  of  sordid  politics  was  not  allowed 
to  fall  upon  it. 


The   Suez   Canal 

DATES   FROM    B.  C.    1400 

The  Panama  Canal  has  been  thought  of  and  talked  about 
for  nearly  four  hundred  years,  but  the  first  Suez  Canal  was  al- 
ready finished  and  in  use  four  hundred  years  before  the  time  of 
Solomon.  The  historian  Strabo  declared  that  Seti,  father  of 
Rameses  the  Great,  dug  a  ditch  fifty-seven  miles  long  and  wide 
enough  for  the  largest  vessels  of  that  day — fourteen  hundred 
years  before  Christ — from  Bubastis  on  the  Pelusiac  branch  of 
the  Nile,  to  Hieropolis  on  the  Bitter  Lakes,  then  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Suez,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Red  Sea. 

In  the  course  of  centuries,  this  became  filled  with  sand  and 
eight  hundred  years  later,  according  to  Herodotus,  Necho  II 
attempted  to  clear  it,  but  desisted,  after  the  lives  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  men  had  been  sacrificed  in  the  desert, 
because  of  a  prophecy  that,  should  the  canal  be  completed, 
Egypt  would  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians. 

Likewise  the  Persian  Darius,  who  took  up  the  work  a  hundred 
years  later,  abandoned  it  because  the  engineering  experts  of  the 
period  feared  that  the  land  would  be  flooded.  But  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  in  B.  C.  285,  built  a  canal  from  the  Nile  to  Arsinoe, 
not  far  from  the  present  Suez.  Cleopatra's  fleet  tried  to  escape 
through  this  canal  after  the  Battle  of  Actium,  but  in  the  two 
centuries  that  had  passed,  it  had  fallen  into  disrepair  and  was 
unnavigable. 

Roman  engineers,  under  the  emperors  Trajan  and  Hadrian, 
cleared  and  repaired  the  old  waterway,  but  when  the  Moham- 
medans under  Amrou  conquered  Egypt,  they  found  the  canal 
once  more  blocked  and,  after  vainly  trying  to  keep  it  open, 
abandoned  it  again  to  the  drifting  sands  of  the  desert. 


00  UNCLE    SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Then  Came  Napoleon.- — Soon  after  his  conquest  of  Egypt. 
in  1798,  Napoleon  ordered  his  engineers  to  make  surveys  for 
a  direct  canal  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Red  Sea.  They 
did  so,  but  hastily  and  imperfectly,  because  of  the  great  hardships 
they  suffered  and  the  persistent  hostility  of  the  desert  tribes, 
and  so  made  the  erroneous  report  that  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea 
was  some  thirty  feet  above  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  (Only 
a  few  years  later,  Humboldt  made  the  same  mistake  regarding 
the  level  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  at  Panama).  This  revived 
the  old  fear  that  the  re-opening  of  the  canal  would  cause  the 
Red  Sea  to  deluge  Egypt.  Lieutenant  Waghorn,  of  tlie  Royal 
Navy,  made  surveys  of  his  own  that  disproved  this  fallacy,  and 
he  continuously  urged  the  digging  of  a  canal. 

His  judgment  as  to  the  sea-levels  was  confirmed  by  an 
international  board  of  experts  appointed  by  the  viceroy  of 
Egypt  in  1846,  but  his  desire  for  a  canal  was  over-ruled  by  the 
British  representative,  the  famous  Robert  Stephenson,  the  father 
of  railways.  He  naturally  preferred  a  transisthmian  railroad 
from  Suez  on  the  Red  Sea,  to  Cairo.  This  was  built,  and 
cargoes,  mail  and  passengers  to  and  from  India  were  transhipped 
across  it,  to  the  great  profit  of  the  Egyptian  government. 

Interest  of  Lesseps. — These  facts  were  well  known  to 
Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  who  had  been  a  diplomatic  representative 
of  France  in  Egypt,  as  had  also  his  father  before  him.  There 
he  had  won  the  friendship  of  Mohammed  Said,  a  Moslem  prince 
of  Parisian  education  and  tastes,  who  became  viceroy  in  1854. 
Lesseps  hurried  to  Cairo,  and  obtained  the  concession  for  a  canal 
from  Suez  to  the  Mediterranean,  where  the  new  port  it  created 
was  called,  in  honor  of  the  viceroy.  Port  Said. 

Lesseps,  then  about  fifty  years  old,  had  had  no  training  what- 
ever in  technical  engineering.  But  he  was  a  consummate 
diplomat  and  financier,  and,  while  the  engineering  problems  of 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  61 

the   Suez    Canal   were   childishly    simple,    the   diplomatic   and 
financial  difficulties  were  very  great. 

Hostility  of  Great  Britain. — Egypt,  though  becoming 
more  and  more  an  independent  state,  was  still  nominally  a 
province  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  and  a  firman  or  decree  from 
the  Sultan  was  needed  to  ratify  the  canal  concession.  But 
British  influence  was  then  all-powerful  at  Constantinople,  and 
Great  Britain  had  never  forgotten  Napoleon's  attempt  to  cut 
her  oft"  from  India  by  conquering  Egypt. 

In  vain  did  Lesseps  point  out  that  his  was  a  private  com- 
mercial company,  and  that  the  country  to  be  most  benefitted 
by  a  shorter  route  to  India,  such  as  it  proposed  to  construct, 
would  be  Great  Britain.  The  English  Government  could  see 
nothing  in  his  canal  but  an  attempt  to  revive  French  domination 
in  Egypt,  and  to  separate  that  country  from  the  Turkish  Empire. 

Failure  Predicted. — At  the  same  time,  the  English  press 
ridiculed  the  canal  project.  It  was  denounced  as  another  South 
Sea  Bubble;  a  stockjobbing  device  of  unscrupulous  financiers. 
It  would  be  a  physical  impossibility  to  build  the  canal;  the 
entrances  could  not  be  kept  open,  the  bottom  would  not  hold 
water,  the  banks  would  collapse,  and  the  sands  of  the  desert 
would  fill  it  up  faster  than  it  could  be  dredged  out.  And  finally, 
if  the  canal  could  be  built,  it  would  be  of  no  commercial  use  to 
anybody,  as  mails  and  passengers  could  be  more  quickly  tran- 
shipped by  the  railroad,  and  as  for  freight,  the  canal  would  be 
of  no  use  for  sailing  vessels  and  "steamers  cannot  compete  with 
sailing  vessels  in  carrying  goods."  In  short,  every  objection  and 
possibly  a  few  more,  that  has  been  raised  against  the  Panama 
Canal  was  first  raised  against  the  Suez  Canal. 

Zeal  of  Lesseps. — Lesseps  was  indefatigable.  He  hurried 
back  and  forth  from  Cairo  to  Constantinople,  to  Paris,  to 
London,  and  to  Cairo  again,  entreating,  explaining  and  cajol- 


62  UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    AVORLD    HISTORY 

ing.  He  wrote  to  every  member  of  Parliament  and  repeat- 
edly interviewed  Lord  Palmerston,  the  Prime  Minister.  He 
conducted  a  great  series  of  public  meetings  throughout  the 
British  Isles,  and  constantly  importuned  the  leading  news- 
papers and  merchants  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Napoleon  III, 
Emperor  of  the  French,  though  much  interested,  was  only  a 
lukewarm  ally,  but  in  his  beautiful  wife,  the  Empress  Eugenie, 
Lesseps  found  a  constant  and  steadfast  friend. 

Gradually  the  tide  of  popular  opinion  turned  in  his  favor, 
the  British  Government  relaxed  its  hostility,  and  though  the 
Sultan's  firman  had  not  yet  given  him  formal  permission, 
Lesseps  felt  that  he  could  safely  begin  to  dig  the  canal  in  1859. 

Financial  Obstacles. — But  the  financial  difficulty  still 
remained.  The  London  and  Berlin  bankers  had  refused  to 
subscribe  to  the  stock  of  "La  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal 
Maritime  de  Suez."  Only  a  small  amount  could  be  raised  in 
Paris,  for  French  capital  was  needed  at  home,  after  the  losses 
of  the  Crimean  War.  Nothing  was  left  but  to  beg  the  money 
from  Lessep's  old  friend,  the  Viceroy  Said. 

But  he  had  granted  the  concession  with  the  understanding 
that  the  canal  was  not  to  cost  Egypt  a  single  piastre,  while 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  revenue  coming  from  its  operation  was  to 
be  payed  into  the  Egyptian  treasury,  and  after  the  lapse  of 
ninety -nine  years  from  its  opening,  the  canal  was  to  become  the 
property  of  the  Egyptian  government.  Nevertheless,  Said 
willingly  subscribed  to  177,662  shares  out  of  the  four  hundred 
thousand  representing  the  total  capitalization  of  the  company, 
and  after  that  there  was  no  difficulty  in  raising  the  balance  in 
France. 

Work  Begun. — In  the  meanwhile,  constructon  work  had 
gone  actively  forward.  The  site  chosen  for  Port  Said,  the 
Mediterranean  entrance  of  the  canal,  was  an  unmarked  spot  on 


UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  63 

a  long,  narrow  mud-bank  separating  the  Mediterranean  from 
a  great  marsh  called  Lake  Menzaleh.  This  mud-bank  was 
pierced  by  the  entrance  of  the  canal,  which  was  protected  by 
two  long  piers,  constructed  of  blocks  of  artificial  stone  made  on 
the  spot,  of  cement  and  desert  sand.  Gradually  the  narrow 
strip  of  land  was  widened,  and  on  it  was  built  the  present  city 
of  Port  Said.  Two  distinctions  are  claimed  for  that  city  to-day; 
first,  that  a  ship  can  be  coaled  there  more  quickly  than  anywhere 
else,  and  second,  that  it  is  the  wickedest  place  on  earth. 

A  Simple  Task. — Nothing  could  have  been  more  primitive 
than  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal  through  the  twenty 
miles  of  Lake  Menzaleh.  Thousands  of  Egyptian  peasants 
scooped  up  the  mud  from  the  bottom  with  their  bare  hands, 
squeezed  out  the  water  against  their  bare  chests  and  built  up 
the  banks  with  the  clods,  which  were  baked  hard  and  dry  by  the 
sun.  Through  the  shallow  man-made  channel  followed  dredges 
that  pumped  it  out  to  its  full  depth  of  26  feet,  for  a  width  on  the 
bottom  of  72  feet.  The  material  excavated  by  the  dredges  was 
used  to  heighten  and  strengthen  the  banks. 

The  next  ten  miles,  after  reaching  the  mainland,  were  almost 
equally  easy  digging,  eight  of  them  running  through  another 
swamp  called  Lake  Ballah.  Then  came  one  of  the  three  places 
where  anything  like  deep  cutting  was  required:  the  Plateau  of 
El  Guisr.  But  this  was  simply  a  range  of  low  hills,  eight  miles 
in  width,  nowhere  exceeding  70  feet  in  height,  and  composed 
throughout  of  soft  sand.  This  was  easily  scooped  up  by  hand 
and  carried  away  in  baskets,  or  on  the  backs  of  donkeys,  or  on  a 
light  railway  equipped  with  six  locomotives  and  250  cars. 
Compared  to  the  "hard-rock  jo'b"  of  Culebra,  the  "soft-ground 
work"  of  Suez  was  a  task  for  children.  Not  until  the  very  end 
was  any  rock  encountered,  and  the  total  amount  blasted  was 
only  42,000  cubic  yards. 


64  UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Beyond  El  Guisr  was  a  natural  body  of  water  called  Lake 
Timsah.  Here  sprang  into  existence  the  town  of  Isniailia,  the 
half-way  port  of  the  canal.  An  unmarked  spot  on  the  desert, 
it  was  named  after  Ismail,  who  became  viceroy  on  the  death  of 
his  uncle  Said  in  1863.  Six  years  later,  Isniailia  was  a  gay  and 
flourishing  little  city  of  six  thousand  inhabitants. 

Beyond  Lake  Timsah  was  a  second  plateau,  that  of  Serapeum, 
five  and  a  half  miles  wide.  When  this  had  been  cut  through, 
the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  were  admitted  with  great 
ceremony  and  in  the  presence  of  the  Prince  and  Pi'incess  of 
Wales,  later  King  Edward  VII  and  Queen  Alexandra — into  the 
natural  depression  of  the  Bitter  Lakes,  once  part  of  the  Red  Sea, 
that  had  since  become  landlocked  and  whose  waters  had  en- 
tirely evaporated,  leaving  a  thick  deposit  of  salt. 

Only  twelve  miles  remained  to  Suez,  four  of  these  through 
the  third  and  last  plateau,  that  of  Chalouf.  Here  the  only 
ledge  of  hard  rock  encountered  in  the  whole  course  of  the  canal 
was  uncovered  and  blown  up  barely  in  time  to  clear  the  channel 
for  the  formal  opening  in  1809. 

Length  and  Cost. — The  total  length  of  the  Suez  Canal  is 
just  under  100  miles,  or  twice  that  of  the  Panama  Canal.  Its 
cost  is  difficult  to  state  exactly.  The  present  capitalization  of 
the  Canal  Company  is  approximately  one  hundred  millions,  on 
which  it  earns  a  gross  revenue  of  16%,  and  a  net  return  of  7.6%, 
in  an  average  year.  But  instead  of  Egypt's  receiving  15%  of 
this  comfortable  income,  as  originally  agreed  on,  that  country' 
does  not  receive  a  cent  from  the  canal  that  has  cost  her,  directly 
and  indirectly,  in  money  and  in  human  suffering,  a  sum  that  can 
only  be  computed  in  hundi'eds  of  millions. 

Bankruptcy  of  Egypt. — As  the  ancient  oracle  had  prophe- 
cied  to  Necho,  the  completion  of  the  canal  has  caused 
Egypt  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians. 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  65 

When  Mohammed  Said  became  Viceroy  in  1854,  Egyptian 
finances  were  sound,  and  the  country  did  not  owe  a  cent.  Said 
borrowed  the  money  to  purchase  his  canal  shares  in  Eur-ope,  at 
10%,  and,  finding  how  easy  it  was  to  get  money  simply  by  sign- 
ing a  harmless-looking  bit  of  paper,  he  proceeded  to  borrow  more 
and  more. 

Said  promised  to  supply  the  forced  labor  of  his  subjects  on  the 
canal.  In  return  for  what  was  practically  an  unlimited  supply 
of  slaves,  the  canal  company  agreed  to  feed  and  house  the 
thousands  of  Egyptian  peasants  and  look  after  their  health. 
This  was  neglected,  however,  and  thousands  died  of  hunger, 
thirst,  and  disease.  There  were  several  needless  epidemics  of 
cholera.  English  philanthropy,  backed  by  English  political 
and  commercial  hostility  to  the  French,  put  such  pressure  on 
Ismail,  the  successor  of  Said,  that  he  \yithdrew  the  forced  labor. 
Lesseps  and  his  associates  claimed  that  this  was  a  breach  of 
contract,  and  succeeded  in  having  their  claims  submitted  to  the 
arbitration  of  Napoleon  III.  The  Emperor  of  the  French  not 
unnaturally  awarded  the  French  company  very  heavy  damages, 
amounting  to  over  fifteen  million  dollars,  more  than  enough  for 
the  purchase  of  labor-saving  machinery  with  which  to  complete 
the  canal. 

A  smaller  canal,  bringing  fresh  water  from  the  Nile,  was  built 
in  a  course  roughly  parallel  to  the  main  waterway.  Besides 
supplying  the  workmen,  the  fresh  water  was  extremely  valuable 
in  irrigating  the  desert  lands  and  supplying  the  cities  of  Ismailia 
and  Suez.  All  the  cost  of  this  irrigation  was  borne  by  Egypt, 
all  the  profit  went  to  the  Canal  Company. 

Costly  Inauguration. — Over  twenty-one  million  dollars 
were  squandered  by  Ismail  in  the  gorgeous  celebration  of  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  The  Empress  Eugenie,  on  the 
Imperial   yacht    "L'Aigle"    led   a   long   procession   of    French, 


66  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

English,  Austrian,  Italian,  Swedish  and  Egyptian  yachts,  war- 
ships and  merchant  vessels  through  the  new  highway  between 
East  and  West  Moslem  Ulemahs  and  Christian  Bishops  invoked 
their  blessings.  Verdi,  then  the  best-known  composer,  was 
engaged  to  write  an  opera,  an  opera  house  was  erected  and  a 
company  of  the  most  brilliant  singers  brought  to  Cairo,  for  what 
was  to  be  the  last  as  well  as  the  first  performance  of  "Aida." 

Ismail  now  called  himself  Khedive,  instead  of  Viceroy,  of 
Egypt,  having  bought  from  the  Sultan  the  right  to  use  this  title, 
which  is  practically  equivalent  to  that  of  "King."  He  plunged 
deeper  and  deeper  into  extravagance  and  debt.  When  he  could 
borrow  no  more,  he  sold  his  country's  15%  share  in  the  earnings 
of  the  canal  company.  Finally,  he  decided  to  sell  the  177,662 
shares  of  its  stock  he  had  inherited  from  Said. 

Purchased  By  Great  Britain. — The  English  Prime  Min- 
ister, Benjamin  Disraeli,  later  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  got  wind  of 
this,  and  bought  up  Ismail's  shares  before  they  reached  the  open 
market.  By  this  shrewd  purchase,  the  British  Government 
gained  control  of  the  canal  it  had  so  long  opposed. 

Ismail's  extravagances  continued  until  by  1879,  ten  years 
after  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  he  had  piled  up  the  stu- 
pendous debt  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  million  dollars.  Egypt 
was  bankrupt  and  her  creditors  impatient.  The  Sultan  deposed 
Ismail,  who  died  in  exile  sixteen  years  later,  and  his  son  Tewfik 
became   Khedive. 

Tewfik  was  young  and  amiable,  but  weak.  In  trying  to 
economize,  he  neglected  to  pay  his  army,  which  his  father  had 
greatly  increased  and  equipped  with  the  most  modern  weapons. 
Led  by  a  popular  Colonel,  Arabi  Pasha,  the  army  mutinied  in 
1882.  The  foreign  quarter  of  Alexandria  was  sacked  and  burned 
and  many  English  and  other  foreigners  killed. 

English   Occupation   of   Egypt. — An  English  fleet  bom- 


UNCLE   SAM  S   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  67 

barded  Alexandria.  An  expeditionary  force,  under  Sir  Garnet, 
later  Lord  "NYolsey,  landed  on  the  bank  of  the  Suez  Canal,  en- 
countered the  Egyptian  Army  under  Arabi  Pasha  in  a  strong 
position  at  Tel-el-Kebir,  and  utterly  routed  it.  Since  then, 
Egypt,  though  still  nominally  under  the  rule  of  the  Sultan  and 
the  Khedive,  has  been  governed  by  the  English.  Under  their 
splendidly  efficient  and  humane  rule,  the  country's  credit  has 
been  completely  restored,  the  huge  mass  of  debt  largely  paid  off, 
and  the  Egyptian  people  enjoy  greater  prosperity  and  better 
government  to-day  than  they  have  ever  known  in  their 
history. 

With  five  thousand  British  regulars  in  Egypt,  the  strong 
fortresses  of  Malta  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Aden  and  Perim 
in  the  Red  Sea,  Great  Britain  has  little  cause  to  fear  that  any 
other  power  will  seize  Suez  and  cut  her  off  from  India.  More- 
over, by  an  international  convention  in  1888,  the  leading  nations 
of  the  earth,  including  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
agreed  to  the  neutralization  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

Canal  Enlarged. — Since  its  opening,  the  canal  has  been 
frequently  widened  and  deepened,  to  keep  pace  with  the  in- 
creased number  and  growing  size  of  the  ships  that  pass  through 
it.  It  is  now  35  feet  deep  and  has  a  bottom  width  of  135 
feet.  It  has  always  been  necessary,  whenever  two  large  vessels 
meet  in  the  canal,  for  one  to  turn  into  the  nearest  dock  or 
siding,  dug  out  of  the  side  of  the  canal  at  frequent  intervals; 
and  there  tie  up  to  the  bank  while  the  other  ship  passes. 

This,  however,  is  not  true  of  the  Bitter  Lakes,  where  ships 
can  steam  as  freely  as  if  in  the  open  sea  or  on  the  Gatun  Lake 
section  of  the  Panama  Canal.  Excej^t  in  the  Bitter  Lakes, 
ships  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal  cannot  steam  faster  than 
four  knots  an  hour,  for  fear  of  bringing  down  the  sandy  banks 
with   the  wash   from   their   propellers.     Electric   searchlights, 


68  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

first  introduced  in  1887,  make  night  navigation  possible  and 
double  the  efficiency  of  the  canal. 

Dredges  are  constantly  at  work  keeping  the  entrances  clear 
of  silt,  and  removing  sand  and  mud  that  is  always  accumulating 
in  the  channel. 

The  tolls  on  a  vessel  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal  amount 
to  $1.20  a  ton,  and  $2  a  head  for  adult  passengers,  exclusive  of 
the  crew. 

Commercial  Effects. — It  was  anticipated  that  the  opening 
of  the  Suez  Canal  would  do  much  toward  restoring  the  old  com- 
mercial supremacy  of  the  Mediterranean  countries.  But  the 
country  that  was  most  benefitted  was  the  one  that  had  done  most 
to  delay  the  building  of  the  canal:  Great  Britain.  As  long  as 
the  trade  between  Europe  and  the  Far  East  was  carried  on  by 
way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  sailing  ships  could  hold  their 
own  with  steamers,  for  there  were  few  coaling  stations  on  the 
African  coasts,  and  too  much  cargo  room  had  to  be  sacrificed  to 
bunker  capacity.  But  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  by 
shortening  trade-routes,  made  the  iron  screw-steamer  more 
profitable  than  the  sailing  ship,  and  England  had  the  necessary 
capital,  the  coal  and  iron,  and  the  skilled  ship-builders  and 
engineers  of  the  Clyde  and  the  Tyne. 

Growth  in  Japanese  Trade. — Until  recently,  English  ships 
have  been  overwhelmingly  in  the  majority  at  Suez,  but  there  is 
an  increasing  German  competition  for  the  trade  of  the  Far  East. 
In  the  last  few  years,  there  has  been  a  significant  growth  in  the 
number  of  Japanese  vessels  passing  through  Suez.  But  the 
American  flag  is  never  seen  there  to-day,  except  on  a  warship, 
an  army  transport  or  a  yacht. 

One  unexpected  result  of  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  was 
that  it  brought  the  Philippines  so  much  nearer  Spain  that  large 
numbers  of  Spaniards  hurried  out  to  the  islands  to  seek  their 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL  AND    WORLD    HISTORY  69 

fortunes,  and  exploited  the  natives  so  vigorously  that  the  latter 
rose  in  a  series  of  revolts  culminating  in  the  possession  of  the 
Philippines  by  the  United  States.  Even  after  the  Panama 
Canal  is  opened,  Manila  will  be  almost  equi-distant  from  New 
York  by  either  route. 

Traffic  of  the  Canal.— During  the  year  1912,  20,275,120 
tons  of  shipping  passed  through  the  Canal,  an  increase  of  nearly 
2,000,000  tons  over  the  year  of  1911.  The  total  receipts  of 
$27,300,000  were  the  greatest  in  the  history  of  the  Canal. 
During  the  year  5,373  ships  passed  through  the  Canal,  and  of 
these  3,335  flew  the  British  flag. 

Statistics  of  the  Canal. — Some  idea  of  the  saving  of  dis- 
tance by  the  creation  of  Suez  Canal  can  be  obtained  from  the 
following  statistics: 

From  England  to  Bombay,  via  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  10,860  miles 

Suez  Canal,  4,620  miles 

Cape  of  Hood  Hope,  1 1 ,610  miles 

"    Suez  Canal,  6,770  miles 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1 1 ,520  miles 

"    Suez  Canal,  7,920  miles 

Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  was  heaped  with  honors  after  the 
successful  opening  of  the  canal  that  his  tireless  efforts  had  made 
possible.  The  outbreak  of  the  Franco-Prussian  ^Yar  put  an 
untimely  end  to  the  festivities. 


St.  Petersburg 
New  York 


The  Panama  Canal  Flat-Globe 


ITS  VALUE  AND  SUPERIOR  ADVANTAGES  AS  COMPARED 
WITH  THE  OLD  STYLE  SPHERICAL  GLOBE 


The  Panama  Canal  Flat -Globe  rand  World  History  (Two 
Parts)  comprise  together  a  new  Twentieth  Century  system  of 
up-to-date  geographical  review  and  reference.  The  Globe  gives 
a  full  presentation  of  the  entire  earth's  surface  in  the  proper 
relations  of  Continents,  Countries,  Islands  and  Water.  The 
Geographical  History  gives  an  interesting  and  complete  ex- 
planation and  description  of  the  earth's  surface,  from  the  points 
of  Physical  Geography,  Mathematical  Geography,  and  the 
History  of  the  ages  as  shown  in  the  political  subdivisions  of  the 
earth.  This  Globe  and  Geographical  History  combined  give 
to  the  mind  of  the  reader  a  correct  and  full  geographical  educa- 
tion that  is  lasting  and  permanent,  and  both  scholarly  and 
commercial. 

The  word  Geography  means  "Description  of  the  Earth." 
The  subject  embraces  exact  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of 
phenomena  on  the  earth's  surface  and  explains  the  relations  of 
man  to  his  terrestrial  environment.  Amid  what  seas,  land 
forms,  soils,  climatic  conditions,  varieties  of  animal  and  vege- 
table life  and  other  phenomena  of  nature  does  man  live  and  toil? 
How  does  each  of  them  affect  man  and  his  enterprises?  How 
does  he  utilize,  modify,  improve  or  subdue  them?  The  purpose 
of  the  study  of  geography  is  to  show  where  these  phenomena 
are  and  to  answer  such  questions  as  these;  and  the  answers 
illumine  the  earth  in  its  relation  to  man. 

We  cannot  read  history  or  the  news  of  the  day  aright,  nor 
understand  what  man  is  achieving,  unless  we  are  familiar  with 

70 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  71 

world-wide  geography;  and  first  of  all  we  must  know  the  rela- 
tions to  one  another  of  the  various  features  of  the  earth's  surface; 
and  to  do  this,  we  must  understand  the  distribution  of  these 
features  over  the  earth. 

An  idea  of  the  distribution  of  land  and  water,  continents, 
countries,  and  islands  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth,  can 
be  faithfully  and  accurately  conveyed  only  by  means  of  a  globe 
such  as  this  History  explains.  It  is  only  on  the  spherical  sur- 
face of  a  globe  or  by  means  of  such  a  projection  on  a  flat  surface 
as  that  of  the  Panama  Canal  Flat-Globe  that  the  different 
countries,  seas,  etc.,  of  the  earth  can  be  shown  exactly  or  ap- 
proximately in  their  proper  proportion  and  exact  relation  to  one 
another  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  world.  On  all 
other  kinds  of  maps  there  is  necessarily  distortion  of  some  parts. 

An  old-style  ball  Globe  is  very  expensive  and  inconvenient, 
and  few  persons  can  afford  such  a  luxury.  The  Panama  Canal 
Flat-Globe  has  therefore  been  devised  to  bring  within  the  reach 
of  all  a  true  conception  of  the  earth's  surface.  It  has  practically 
all  the  advantages  of  an  old-fashioned  Globe  and  many  advanta- 
ges over  it,  while  the  cost  is  comparatively  small. 

It  is  our  aim  in  this  Geographical  History  to  give  a  correct 
description  of  the  earth  from  every  point  of  view  in  connection 
with  the  Panama  Flat-Globe  illustrating  the  whole  world. 

The  Panama  Canal  Flat-Globe  is  circular  in  form,  perfect- 
ly flat,  twenty-eight  inches  in  diameter,  and  hangs  against  the 
wall.  Each  side  of  the  Globe  contains  a  complete  hemisphere — 
that  is,  on  one  side  the  Western  and  on  the  opposite  side  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere.  You  will  see  at  once  that  by  bringing  the 
lines  of  latitude  and  longitude  exactly  opposite  to  one  another, 
as  we  do  in  printing,  you  can  follow  the  entire  surface  of  the 
earth  by  simply  turning  your  Globe  over  when  going  from  one 
hemisphere  or  side  to  the  other  as  with  the  ball  globe. 


72  UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

A  view  of  the  world  in  its  various  aspects  will  be  presented 
in  these  pages  with  references  here  and  there  to  our  Flat-Globe 
as  illustrating  the  text,  under  the  three  heads  of  Physical  Geog- 
raphy embracing  the  forces  and  phenomena  of  nature  under 
which  mankind  is  environed  and  lives  upon  the  world;  Mathe- 
matical Geography,  with  its  interesting  data  in  relation  to  the 
deferentials  and  equasions  of  time  over  the  entire  earth,  in 
their  relation  to  climate,  seasons,  crops,  and  the  occupations 
and  activities  of  mankind.  National  or  Political  Geography 
which  gives  the  most  important  and  latest  facts  concerning  the 
continents  and  countries  of  the  world,  including  their  Islands, 
Colonies  and  dependencies. 


Physical  Geography 

Physical  Geography  considers  the  different  materials  of  which 
the  earth  is  composed  and  the  forces  which  act  on  them.  It 
compares  and  treats  of  the  functions  of  each.  The  rocks  that 
form  the  solid  parts  of  the  earth,  the  waters  that  flow  over  them 
and  the  all-embracing  atmosphere,  together  with  their  shapes, 
movements  and  uses  and  the  solar  and  terrestrial  energies  that 
develop  so  many  activities  in  matter,  are  among  its  topics. 

A  Family  of  Worlds. — The  Earth  is  one  of  a  number  of 
planets  that  belong  to  the  Sun,  move  around  it,  and  derive  their 
light  and  heat  from  it.  Of  the  known  planets.  Mercury  and 
Venus  are  nearer  the  sun  than  we  are,  but  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Uranus  and  Neptune,  in  this  order,  are  further  away  from  it. 
The  earth  is  the  fifth  in  size,  being  smaller  than  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Uranus  and  Neptune,  and  larger  than  Venus,  Mars  and  Mercury. 
Outside  the  orbit  of  Mars  are  many  minor  planets,  or  asteroids, 
of  which  over  400  have  thus  far  been  discovered. 

Size  of  the  Earth — We  are  apt  to  think  that  our  world  is  an 
enormous  body,  but  it  is  really  one  of  the  smaller  specks  of  dust 
that  move  through  space.  The  universe  is  illimitable,  and  we 
cannot  grasp  it  in  our  thoughts.  We  know  at  least  that  our 
entire  solar  system  is  only  a  point  in  space,  and  we  need  not 
seek  outside  this  system  for  proof  of  the  comparative  insignifi- 
cance of  this  dwelling-place  of  ours.  Our  satellite,  the  moon,  is 
circling  around  the  earth  at  a  distance  of  240,000  miles  from  us. 
Suppose  we  could  place  the  earth  and  its  satellite  within  the 
sun,  the  earth  at  its  center;  with  the  moon  moving  around  the 
earth  at  its  present  distance,  the  sun  would  still  extend  nearly 
200,000  miles  beyond  the  moon  at  all  points.  The  diameter  of 
the  sun  is  over  109  times  the  diameter  of  the  earth  through  the 
equator. 

73 


74  UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Many  of  the  stars  are  believed  to  be  larger  than  the  sun.  All 
the  stars  are  far-away  suns,  and  the  star  that  is  nearest  to  us  is 
so  remote  that  while  it  takes  only  eight  minutes  for  a  ray  of  light 
to  travel  nearly  93,000,000  miles  from  the  sun  to  us,  it  would 
take  about  three  and  a  half  years  for  the  ray  to  reach  us  from  the 
nearest  star.  Astronomers  have  calculated  the  distance  of  the 
nearest  stars  from  us,  but  their  figures  are  expressed  in  so  many 
hundreds  of  millions  of  miles  that  they  convey  no  definite  idea 
to  our  minds. 

The  area  of  the  earth's  surface  is  computed  at  196,712,000 
square  miles,  or  about  sixty-five  times  the  area  of  continental 
United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska.  Of  this  area,  144,712,000 
square  miles  are  assigned  to  the  ocean,  and  52,000,000  or  about 
two-fifths,  to  the  land. 

Shape  of  the  Earth. — The  Earth  is  not  a  perfectly  sym- 
metrical sphere.  This  has  been  proved  by  careful  measure- 
ments of  the  length  of  degrees  of  the  meridian  lines  that  are 
traced  on  the  globe  from  pole  to  pole  (p.  131  of  this  History). 
If  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  the  length  of  each  meridian 
from  equator  to  pole  would  be  exactly  the  same.  But  the 
measurements  show  that  there  is  a  progressive  increase  in  the 
length  of  the  degrees  towards  the  poles,  and  this  could  only 
occur  by  a  flattening  of  the  earth's  surface  at  the  poles.  The 
result  of  all  this  investigation  proves  that  the  equatorial  diam- 
eter is  about  26|  miles  longer  than  the  polar  diameter,  so  that 
each  pole  is  compressed  about  13J  miles.  The  mean  equatorial 
diameter  has  a  length  of  7,925.65  statute  miles,  and  the  mean 
polar  diameter  is  7,899.17  miles  long.  The  circumference  of 
the  equator  is  about  24,902  miles. 

Density  of  the  Earth. — It  is  certain  that  the  materials 
deep  under  the  earth's  crust  are  heavier  than  the  rocks  which 
form  its  surface,  because  the  force  of  gravitation  increases  to- 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  75 

wards  the  center,  thus  augmenting  their  density,  or,  in  other 
words,  their  weight.  Experiments  made  with  pendulum  and 
plumb-hne  on  the  earth's  attraction,  indicate  that  the  earth 
weighs  about  5^  times  as  much  as  it  would  if  it  were  composed 
entirely  of  water,  and  therefore  its  density  is  computed  to  be 
about  5§.  The  density  of  the  other  planets"  varies  from  1  to  7; 
that  of  the  sun  is  1|,  and  of  the  moon  3|. 

The  Atmosphere, — Encircling  the  earth  and  as  much  a 
part  of  the  phenomena  of  our  planet  as  its  land  and  water,  is  an 
invisible  ocean  of  gas  and  vapor  which  we  call  air.  .It  is  the 
outer  envelope  wrapped  around  the  planet,  and  its  distinctive 
name,  Atmosphere,  means  vapor-sphere.  Astronomers  believe, 
from  their  observations  of  the  heights  at  which  meteors,  drop- 
ping into  our  atmosphere,  become  redhot  through  friction  against 
the  air,  that  this  gaseous  envelope  extends  about  500  miles  above 
the  surface  of  the  earth;  but  only  a  few  miles  above  the  sea  level 
it  becomes  so  light  and  thin  that  it  will  not  support  human  life. 

Chemists  have  found  that  air  is  composed  by  weight  of  over 
three-fourths  nitrogen  and  not  quite  one-fourth  oxygen;  solid 
particles,  such  as  the  dancing  motes  we  may  see  in  a  beam  of 
sunlight,  are  always  present,  consisting  chiefly  of  little  specks  of 
dust,  and  sometimes  also  of  minute  living  germs  from  which 
lowly  forms  of  vegetable  or  animal  life  may  spring.  Rain  washes 
out  many  of  these  tiny  motes,  and  thus  acts  as  a  purifier  of 
the  air. 

Movements  of  the  Earth. — Our  world  is  travelling  through, 
space  with  wonderful  rapidity.  It  revolves  around  the  sun 
every  year;  and  every  day  in  the  year  it  turns  or  rotates  on  its 
axis.  Why  does  the  earth  keep  moving  ?  The  reason  is  becaust^ 
in  empty  space  it  meets  no  friction  or  other  impediment  to  retard 
or  stop  its  motion.  The  air  does  not  impede  it,  because  it  is  a 
part  of  the  earth  and  moves  with  it.     The  two  motions  of  the 


76  UNCLE   SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

earth  will  never  cease,  unless  as  much  power  is  exerted  to  annul 
them  as  was  applied  to  produce  them. 

The  Earth's  Revolution. — Why  does  the  earth  move 
around  the  sun?  Every  particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  ti-ies 
to  attract  or  draw  to  itself  every  other  particle.  This  is  called 
the  attraction  of  gravitation.  Some  force  impelled  the  earth  to 
move  forward  in  a  straight  line,  but  the  force  of  gravitation  is 
exerted  at  the  same  time  to  draw  it  to  the  sun;  and  these  two 
forces,  continually  exerted  on  the  earth,  are  so  adjusted  that 
instead  of  shooting  off  into  space  or  falling  into  the  sun,  our 
globe  revolves  around  the  sun  in  a  nearly  circular  path,  which  is 
called  its  orbit;  and  the  period  of  time  we  call  a  year  is  merely 
the  time  in  which  the  earth  makes  one  complete  revolution 
around  the  sun. 

Our  globe  is  rushing  along  its  orbit  at  the  rate  of  68,000  miles 
an  hour,  or  1,632,000  miles  in  a  day.  We  are  travelling  over 
600,000,000  miles  every  year  in  our  great  annual  journey  around 
the  sun.  The  direction  of  both  the  revolution  and  the  rotation 
of  the  earth  is  from  west  to  east. 

If  the  two  forces,  propulsion  and  gravity,  were  exactly 
balanced,  the  earth's  orbit  would  be  a  perfect  circle;  but  as  they 
are  not,  the  real  form  of  the  orbit  is  an  oval  or  ellipse.  The 
result  is  that  our  globe,  at  one  part  of  its  course,  is  nearer  to  the 
sun  than  at  another,  its  average  distance  being  computed  at 
92,800,000  miles. 

•  Lengthening  and  Shortening  of  Days  and  Nights. — A 
peculiarity  of  the  earth  as  it  swings  around  the  sun  causes  the 
changes  in  the  length  of  days  and  nights,  and  also  accounts  for 
the  alternation  of  seasons.  If  the  axis  of  the  earth  were  per- 
pendicular to  the  path  along  which  it  moves  around  the  sun,  the 
globe  would  be  moving  in  a  perfectly  upright  i^osition,  and  day 
and  night  would  be  equal  in  length  all  the  year.     But  the  axis 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  77 

is  really  inclined  23j  degrees  from  the  perpendicular,  so  that  the 
north  end  of  it,  or,  in  other  words,  the  North  Pole,  points  nearly 
to  the  Polar  Star,  Twice  a  year,  March  20th  and  September 
22d,  the  earth  reaches  such  positions  in  its  orbit  that  the  sun  is 
exactly  vertical  over  the  equator.  Then  the  line  between  the 
dark  and  the  sunlit  half  of  the  globe,  dividing  day  and  night, 
passes  through  the  Poles,  and  day  and  night  are  each  twelve 
hours  long  throughout  the  world. 

Equinoxes  or  Equal  Nights. — After  the  March  equinox, 
the  North  Pole  is  turned  towards  the  sun,  and  as  the  earth  moves 
on  its  path,  more  and  more  of  the  northern  half  of  it  comes  into 
the  sunlight.  The  days  grow  longer  and  longer  the  further  north 
we  go,  until,  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  sun  does  not  set  at 
midsummer  at  all,  and  at  the  North  Pole  the  day  is  six  months 
long.  At  the  same  time,  the  South  Pole,  turned  away  from  the 
sun,  has  a  night  of  half  a  year.  Then  as  the  earth  goes  on  its 
orbit  and  the  September  equinox  is  reached,  the  North  Pole 
begins  to  point  away  from  the  sun,  the  days  shorten  and  the 
nights  lengthen  through  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  the 
North  Pole  has  its  half-year  of  night,  while  the  South  Pole  is  in 
continuous  daylight. 

Alternation  of  the  Seasons. — This  is  also  due  to  the  in- 
clination of  the  earth's  axis.  During  half  the  year  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  receives  far  more  sunshine  than  the  Southern 
Hemisphere.  This  is  the  warm  or  summer  season  in  the  north, 
while  it  is  the  cold  or  winter  season  in  the  southern  half  of  the 
world;  for  the  next  six  months  it  is  the  winter  season  in  the  north 
and  the  summer  season  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

When  it  is  the  summer  half  of  the  year  where  we  live,  the 
high  temperature  of  the  torrid  zone  advances  to  the  middle 
latitude  and  the  cold  of  the  polar  regions  becomes  less  severe; 
but  in  the  winter  half-year,  the  cold  of  the  polar  regions  is  in- 


78  UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

tense,  low  temperatures  advance  through  the  middle  latitudes, 
and  the  heat  on  the  edge  of  the  torrid  zone  is  temperate.  The 
half  of  the  earth  over  which  the  winter  season  reigns  receives  the 
rays  of  the  sun  more  slantingly ;  they  are  scattei'ed  over  a  larger 
surface,  and  consequently  their  power  is  less  intense. 

The  earth  is  so  small  that  it  receives  only  a  little  of  the  sun's 
light  and  heat,  but  it  is  these  gifts  that  make  life  possible  on  the 
earth. 

The  Seasons  and  Agriculture. — The  two  great  farming 
regions  are  in  the  north  and  south  temperate  zones.  The  pre- 
ceding section  tells  us  that  when  it  is  summer  in  one  of  these 
zones  it  is  winter  in  the  other.  This  is  a  kindly  provision  of 
nature.  The  result  of  it  is  that  the  work  of  raising  the  food  and 
vegetable  fibres,  the  fruits  and  the  grasses  required  by  man  and 
the  domestic  animals,  never  ceases.  For  several  months  in  the 
year  most  of  our  farm  lands  are  frozen  solid  to  a  depth  of  several 
inches  or  a  foot  or  more;  but  in  those  very  months  the  farmers 
of  Argentina,  Cape  Colony,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  are 
cutting  their  wheat,  turning  grass  into  hay  and  gathering  the 
orchard  fruits.  The  wheat  harvest  is  in  progress  somewhere 
every  month  in  the  year.  Even  in  the  temperate  zones  there 
is  much  difference  in  the  time  during  which  the  same  crops  are 
gathered.  Thus  in  our  Southern  States,  vegetables  are  grown 
much  earlier  than  in  our  Northern  States,  and  the  North  can  draw 
upon  this  source  of  supply  during  the  winter  and  early  spring 
until  its  own  vegetables  mature;  and  if  the  wheat  crop  of  the 
north  temperate  zone  yields  less  than  usual  it  is  a  great  blessing 
to  be  able  to  draw  upon  the  wheat  that  is  grown  in  the  south 
temperate  zone  several  months  later  without  waiting  a  whole 
year  for  the  succeeding  northern  crop  to  ripen. 

A  little  after  midwinter  the  fine  peaches,  grapes,  plums  and 
other  fruits  of  New  Zealand  and  Cape  Colony,  carried  thousands 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  79 

of  miles  in  cold  storage,  are  found  in  the  markets  of  London,  and 
since  1902  in  those  of  New  York,  while  our  own  vines  and  fruit 
trees  are  still  leafless.  In  the  torrid  zone,  food  may  be  grown  the 
year  around.  But  in  the  temperate  zones,  where  vegetable  food 
can  be  grown  only  a  part  of  the  year,  it  is  a  great  advantage  for 
the  inhabitants  of  one  zone  to  be  able  to  draw  upon  the  supplies 
raised  in  the  other  zone  in  another  part  of  the  year.  So  these 
differences  in  the  growing  seasons,  together  with  cheap  and  rapid 
transportation,  and  refrigeration  to  preserve  perishable  products, 
help  to  bring  all  nations  close  together  in  business  and  social 
relations. 

Rotation  of  the  Earth. — ^Yhile  rushing  forward  on  its 
path  through  space,  the  globe  is  turning  around  on  its  axis  once 
in  twenty-four  hours,  so  that  the  sun  is  constantly  rising  on  one 
part  of  its  surface  and  setting  on  another  part.  So  great  is  the 
speed  of  this  rotation  that  we  should  be  thrown  off  into  space  if 
it  were  not  that  the  earth's  attraction  is  more  powerful  than  the 
tendency  to  fly  off.  This  rotation  causes  the  succession  of 
day  and  night.  We  are  not  always  wrapped  in  darkness  when 
the  sun  is  hidden  from  our  view  on  the  other  side  of  the  world, 
because  in  the  part  of  every  month  when  the  sun  shines  on  that 
face  of  the  moon  which  is  always  turned  toward  us,  the  reflection 
of  the  sun's  beams  casts  a  gentle  refulgence  over  the  dark  side 
of  the  earth. 

Clouds. — Vapor,  by  evaporation  from  water  surfaces,  enters 
the  atmosphere,  and  when  carried  aloft  may  be  cooled  so  far  as 
to  become  condensed.  This  makes  the  air  cloudy,  and  if  the 
cooling  and  condensation  are  continued  far  enough  will  cause 
rain  or  snow.  Frequently  the  moisture-laden  air  is  condensed 
by  cooling  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  then  we  have  fogs, 
which  do  not  differ  from  clouds  except  that  they  are  nearer  the 
ground.     There  are  numerous  forms  of  clouds,  but  they  are 


80 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 


classed  under  four  principal  types:  cumulus  clouds,  rounded 
into  great  masses  like  heaps  of  wool,  usually  formed  at  the  top  of 
an  ascending  column  of  air;  cirrus  clouds,  light  and  feathery  in 
appearance,  formed  at  heights  of  several  miles,  and  consisting 
of  snowflakes  or  tiny  ice  crystals;  stratus  clouds,  which  extend 
in  long  horizontal  layers  and  are  formed  much  nearer  the  earth 
than  the  cirrus  clouds;  nimbus  clouds,  widely  spread  cloud  masses 
from  which  rain  or  snow  is  falling. 


Types  of  Clouds. 


Rainfall. — This  term  includes  rain,  snow,  hail  and  sleet. 
When  water  vapor  condenses  so  far  that  the  particles  of  water 
become  too  large  for  the  air  to  hold  them  up,  they  are  pre- 
cipitated to  the  earth  in  one  of  the  forms  above  mentioned. 
The  vapor  crystallizes  into  snowflakes  if  the  condensation  occurs 
at  a  temperature  below  the  freezing-point.  Sleet  is  half-melted 
snow.     Hail  usually  occurs  in  summer,  when  the  air  currents  of 


81 


82  UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

lofty  thunderstorms  carry  raindrops  so  high  that  they  are  frozen 
before  they  fall. 

Thunderstorms. — The  generation  of  electricity  often  ac- 
companies the  rapid  condensation  of  water  vapor.  This  pro- 
duction of  electricity  often  occurs  to  such  a  degree  as  to  induce 
frequent  discharges  of  lightning  from  cloud  to  cloud,  or  from 
the  clouds  to  the  earth.  Such  a  disturbance  is  called  a  thunder- 
storm. The  discharges  of  electricity  and  claps  of  thunder  may 
be  terrific,  particularly  in  the  tropics.  The  rainfall  in  such 
storms  does  not  often  exceed  an  hour  unless  a  second  storm 
closely  follows  the  first  one. 

Cloudbursts. — The  term  is  applied  to  heavy  downpours  of 
rain  of  short  duration.  They  occur  in  arid  regions,  and  may  be 
observed  during  the  rainy  season  throughout  the  southwestern 
states  of  the  Union,  in  northern  Mexico,  and  in  parts  of  the 
Sahara  desert.  As  soon  as  they  begin,  veritable  torrents  rush 
down  thp  mountain  sides  for  an  hour  or  more  only  to  disappear 
as  suddenly  as  they  came. 

The  Rainbow. — When  the  sun  shines  on  drops  of  falling 
water  an  arch  of  light  is  formed  in  the  sky  showing  the  colors 
that  the  prism  reveals.  This  arch  is  called  a  rainbow.  The 
sun's  rays  are  refracted  by  each  drop  of  water,  and  the  white 
light  from  the  sun  is  broken  up  into  the  colors  which  form  it. 

Aurora  Borealis. — The  quivering  light  seen  in  the  north, 
but  sometimes  covering  the  whole  sky,  is  called  by  this  name. 
It  is  believed  to  be  the  result  of  discharges  of  electricity  through 
the  air.  The  data  supplied  by  many  observers  seem  to  show  that 
there  is  a  belt  of  aurora  borealis  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
the  center  of  the  belt  passing  through  Hudson  Bay,  northern 
Norway  and  Point  Barrow,  Alaska,  thus  encircling  the  world. 
A  similar  phenomenon  (Aurora  australis)  is  also  observed  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere.     The  height  of  the  aurora  above  the 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY  83 

earth's  surface  has  not  been  satisfactorily  determined,  but  it  is 
beheved  that  the  electrical  phenomena  occur  at  no  very  great 
altitude. 

Glaciers. — In  very  cold  regions  or  in  high  altitudes  falling 
snow  accumulates  instead  of  melting.  It  forms  enormous  heaps 
of  ice  in  course  of  time.  The  weight  of  the  top  layers  causes  a 
creeping  of  the  lower  levels  so  that  they  project  in  tongues  away 
from  the  main  accumulation.  To  these  projecting  tongues  the 
n&me  of  glaciers  has  been  given.  The  phenomenon  is  in  reality 
a  flow  of  ice.  In  the  Alps  these  glaciers  move  forward  on  an 
average  of  from  100  to  500  feet  a  year.  Glaciers  of  great  size 
occur  in  the  Himalayas  and  in  Alaska. 

Icebergs. — Classes  of  floating  ice  that  have  broken  from  the 
ends  of  glaciers  or  from  ice  sheets.  When  glaciers  move  down 
valleys  and  push  their  fronts  into  the  sea,  the  water  tends  to 
buoy  up  the  partly  submerged  mass  which  breaks  away,  floats 
off  and  is  called  an  ieeberg.  In  the  Antarctic,  the  seaward  parts 
of  the  continental  ice  cap  are  often  pushed  into  the  sea  and 
float  away.  These  are  called  tabular  icebergs.  The  breaking 
off  and  floating  away  of  the  end  of  a  Greenland  glacier  was 
called  by  sailors  the  "calving"  of  the  glacier  and  this  expression 
is  often  used  in  scientific  writings.  Icebergs  carry  a  great  deal 
of  stone  and  earthy  debris  which  as  they  melt,  they  deposit  on 
the  sea  floor.  IceV)ergs  are  a  menace  to  navigation;  and  since 
the  sinking  of  the  "Titanic,"  in  1912,  patrol  steamers  have  been 
kept,  during  the  months  of  danger,  along  the  northern  trans- 
Atlantic  route  to  give  warning  if  they  find  icebergs  there. 

Terrestrial  Magnetism. — This  is  the  mysterious  force  in 
nature  which  causes  the  compass  needle  to  point  towards  the 
north  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  not  yet  well  understood, 
but  most  students  of  physical  science  believe  that  it  has  its  seat 
within- the  earth,  though  others  think  it  may  be  due  to  cosmic 


Hi  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

influences,  such  as  changes  in  the  sun.  It  was  known  centuries 
ago  that  the  magnetic  needle  does  not  point  to  the  true  north, 
but  is  deflected  to  the  east  or  west  of  it.  This  deflection  is 
called  the  magnetic  declination,  and  the  amount  of  the  declina- 
tion for  all  parts  of  the  world  must  be  redetermined  from  time 
to  time  as  it  varies. 

It  was  also  found  that  when  the  magnetic  needle  is  hung  on  a 
horizontal  axis,  the  needle  point  may  rise  towards  the  sky  or 
sink  towards  the  earth.  This  is  called  the  magnetic  dip,  or 
inclination.  In  1831  the  British  polar  explorer,  James  C.  Ross, 
discovered  a  point  on  the  west  coast  of  Boothia,  in  the  American 
Arctic  regions,  where  the  dipping  needle  pointed  almost  exactly 
to  the  center  of  the  earth.  This  spot  is  called  the  north  mag- 
netic pole,  which  is  believed  to  vary  in  its  position,  moving  now 
to  the  east  and  then  to  the  west.  So  little  is  known  about  it  that 
Captain  Amundsen  left  Norway  with  an -expedition  for  Boothia 
in  1903  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  whether  the  pole  really  changes 
its  position,  whether  it  is  a  point  or  an  area,  and  to  study  other 
magnetic  problems.  The  position  of  the  south  magnetic  pole 
has  not  been  exactly  determined.  Many  of  the  leading  nations 
are  now  making  investigations  in  the  hope  to  increase  our 
knowledge  of  the  causes  and  results  of  the  earth's  magnetic 
condition.  ^ 

Earthquakes. — Every  one  sees  that  many  rocks  of  the 
earth's  surface  have  been  lifted  or  depressed,  folded  or  broken. 
This  shows  that  the  earth's  crust  is  subject  to  great  strains  and 
stresses  which  may  become  too  severe  for  the  rocks  to  with- 
stand; the  result  will  be  a  sudden  breakage  or  movement  that  is 
felt  at  the  surface  as  an  earthcj[uake.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
at  one  time  or  another  every  part  of  the  earth's  surface  has  felt 
these  disturbances,  though  the  areas  so  violently  disturbed, 
within  the  historic  period,  as  to  destroy  human  life  and  property, 


/ 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  85 

are  perhaps  not  more  than  one-fifteenth  or  one-twentieth  of  the 
whole  surface.  There  are  large  regions  where  earth  movements, 
or  tremors,  are  almost  incessant,  such  as  parts  of  Japan  and 
Venezuela.  Seismographs  record  some  3,000  of  these  move- 
ments every  year  in  Japan,  but  most  of  them  are  so  slight  that 
they  can  be  detected  only  by  these  delicate  instruments  invented 
to  record  earth  movements;  and  while  Japan  is  a  land  of  earth- 
quakes, only  forty  or  fifty  very  violent  and  destructive  shocks 
have  been  recorded  there  since  the  fifth  century  of  the  present 
era. 

Earthquakes  usually  originate  near  the  ocean  edge,  though 
sometimes  their  starting-point  is  in  the  heart  of  the  continents, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  New  Madrid  earthquakes  in  what  is  now 
southeastern  Missouri  and  northeastern  Arkansas;  and  some- 
times the  effects  of  earthquakes  originating  near  the  oceans  are 
felt  to  the  heart  of  the  continents,  as  happened  in  the  Charleston 
earthquake  of  1886,  when  the  earth-waves  were  recorded  in 
southern  Ontario  and  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  opening  of  cracks  in  the  earth  usually  accompanies  these 
movements.  Sometimes  the  fissures  are  wide  enough  to  engulf 
houses,  as  in  the  Japan  earthquake  of  1891.  The  destruction 
of  life  is  sometimes  appalling.  Thirty  thousand  persons  perished 
in  the  Lisbon  earthquake,  1*2,000  in  the  shocks  that  destroyed 
Caracas,  Venezuela,  and  10,000  Japanese  lost  their  lives  in  the 
calamity  of  1891.  San  Francisco  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the 
same  cause  in  1906. 

Earthquakes  originatmg  under  the  sea  have  sometimes  in- 
volved the  people  of  the  neighboring  coasts  in  dire  calamity  by 
waves  that  suddenly  roll  in  upon  the  land,  causing  great  de- 
struction. The  shocks  travel  through  the  rocks  at  the  rate  of 
about  three  miles  a  second,  gradually  growing  feebler  until  they 
finally  disappear.     These  catastrophes  cannot  be  averted,  but 


86 


UNCLE   SAM  S   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 


the  government  of  earthquake  countries,  as  Japan,  are  making 
earnest  efforts  to  secure  all  information  obtainable  as  to  the 
origin  and  causes  of  the  phenomena,  and  to  teach  their  peoi^le 
what  kinds  of  structures  will  best  withstand  severe  earth- 
movements.  They  warn  them  against  building  their  homes  on 
the  banks  of  rivers  or  the  edges  of  cliffs,  where  they  are  most 
likely  to  be  destroyed. 

Volcanoes. — Among  the  violent  processes  of  nature  is  the 


iSg!5HR3TSW»?S»?»P'f»?*56^' 


Mont  Pel6,  Mautinique  Island,  in  Eruption. 

expulsion  from  the  interior  of  the  earth  of  molten  rock,  called 
lava,  which  is  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  land  or  on  the  sea- 
floor.  Sometimes  the  lava  oozes  gently  from  the  orifice,  or 
crater,  but  often  it  is  accompanied  by  explosions  of  steam,  which 
are  a  prominent  feature  of  the  eruptions  of  Vesuvius,  or  by 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  87 

outbursts  of  gases  such  as  in  1902  destroyed  the  city  of  St.  Pierre 
in  Martinique.  Such  eruptions  are  called  volcanic.  When  the 
lava  and  dust  poured  through  the  crater  are  heaped  up  around 
the  opening,  the  material  in  many  cases  is  raised  to  a  great 
height.     The  mountain  thus  formed  is  called  a  volcano. 

The  causes  of  volcanic  eruptions  are  not  well  understood, 
but  steam  has  undoubtedly  much  to  do  with  the  production  of 
volcanic  activity.  We  know  that  water  may  sink  deep  beneath 
the  earth's  surface  through  permeable  rocks  or  fissures  in  the 
strata.  Deep  in  the  earth  this  water  may  become  superheated, 
and  in  the  form  of  steam  may  reach  the  air  through  some  vol- 
canic vent  with  terrific  explosive  energy,  blowing  the  accompany- 
ing lava  into  fragments  and  scattering  it  far  and  wide,  or  tearing 
mountains  to  pieces,  as  was  the  case  at  Krakatao  in  1883. 

Volcanoes  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  many  of 
them  have  lost  their  activity  and  are  called  extinct.  They  are 
defined  as  active  when  they  are  more  or  less  frequently  in  erup- 
tion, and  a  dormant  when  they  show  only  such  faint  signs  of 
activity  as  sulphurous  vapors  or  hot  springs  afford. 

There  are  also  colossal  outflows  of  lava  which  do  not  form 
mountains,  the  lavas  being  so  fluid  that  they  flow  far  and  wide, 
covering  vast  tracts  of  country  with  lava  sheets,  as  in  the  basin 
of  the  Columbia  River,  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  United 
States.  Where  the  lavas  are  less  fluid  they  pile  up  around  the 
crater,  and  the  form  of  the  mountain  thus  produced  is  usually 
conical.  Sometimes  the  molten  matter  is  forced  up  through  long 
rifts  in  the  strata  and  hardens  into  rock.  This  is  the  way  that 
the  Palisades  of  the  Hudson  were  formed. 

V  ,In  accounts  of  eruptions  we  often  read  of  flames  and  ashes; 
but  students  of  volcanoes  agree  that  there  is  very  little  com- 
bustion in  a  volcanic  outburst.  Steam  is  overwhelmingly  the 
greater  part  of  the  vapors  and  gases  emitted.     About  the  only 


88  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

inflammable  gas  in  these  eruptions  is  believed  to  be  a  small 
proportion  of  sulphureted  hydrogen,  but  its  quantity  is  too  small 
to  contribute  much  to  the  spectacular  features  of  a  volcano.  It 
is  quite  certain  that  what  appears  to  be  flame  in  an  eruption  is 
usually  the  reflection  of  molten  lava  from  the  clouds  above. 

The  term  volcanic  ashes  does  not  mean  the  residue  left  by 
combustion,  but  the  great  quantities  of  dust  and  other  finely 
divided  debris  that  are  often  blown  thousands  of  feet  into  the  air. 

Along  the  western  coastal  regions  of  the  Americas  are  many 
great  volcanoes,  of  which  not  a  few  in  Latin  America  and  Alaska 
are  very  active;  but  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  the  number 
showing  even  slight  signs  of  activity  is  small.  Among  the  most 
famous  volcanoes  are  Vesuvius,  in  Italy,  whose  eruptions, 
studied  for  2,000  years,  have  sometimes  been  terrific.  One  of 
them  in  79  a.d.  overwhelmed  the  towns  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum.  Stromboli,  one  of  the  Lipari  Islands,  has  been 
called  the  "Lighthouse  of  the  Mediterranean,"  because  it  is 
always  active  and  illumines  the  sea  for  miles  around  at  night. 
One  of  the  largest  volcanoes  is  Etna,  in  Sicily,  10,000  feet  high 
and  40  miles  in  circumference,  with  craters  not  only  on  the  top, 
but  also  on  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  where  small  cones  have  been 
built  by  eruptions.  The  active  volcanoes  of  our  Territory  of 
Hawaii  are  in  the  island  of  Hawaii,  the  highest  being  Mauna 
Loa  and  Mauna  Kea.  A  great  number  of  the  oceanic  islands 
were  formed  by  the  outpouring  of  lavas,  the  increasing  heaps 
finally  appearing  above  the  surface  of  the  oceans.  Java,  Japan, 
Sumatra,  and  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies  are  still  a  field  of 
very  great  volcanic  activity. 

Eclipses. — Sometimes  the  sun  is  wholly  or  partially  shut 
out  from  our  view  because  the  moon  interposes  itself  between 
the  earth  and  the  sun.  When  a  larger  or  smaller  part  of  the 
sun  is  thus  hidden  from  us  it  is  called  an  eclipse  of  the  sun. 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  89 

At  such  times  the  shadow  of  the  moon  is  cast  on  a  part  of  the 
earth,  and  if  we  are  in  that  shadow  we  see  the  echpse;  but 
though  the  moon  has  intercepted  the  rays  of  the  sun  which 
ilhimine  the  place  where  we  are,  milhons  of  other  people  can  see 
no  eclipse  because  they  are  not  in  the  shadow,  and  to  them  no 
part  of  the  sun  is  shut  out  of  sight.  The  outline  of  the  eclipsed 
part  of  the  sun  is  circular,  because  the  moon  is  a  sphere.  If  the 
full  shadow  of  the  moon  is  cast  on  the  earth,  the  eclipse  is  total 
to  all  observers  in  any  part  of  the  shadow;  but  it  is  a  partial 
eclipse  if  only  a  part  of  the  sun's  disk  is  shut  out  of  sight. 

When  the  moon  is  at  its  greatest  distance  from  the  earth  the 
point  of  convergence  of  its  shadow  does  not  reach  the  earth. 
In  such  cases  the  central  part  of  the  sun's  surface  is  shut  out  of 
sight  to  the  observer  near  the  central  line,  while  tlie  outer  edge 
of  the  sun's  surface  is  seen  in  all  its  brightness.  This  is  called  an 
annular  eclipse  of  the  sun. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  caused  in  a  different  way.  In  the 
course  of  their  movements  the  earth  may  come  between  the 
moon  and  the  sun.  If  the  moon  passes  through  the  shadow  of 
the  earth  to  such  extent  that  the  entire  surface  is  in  shadow,  then 
it  is  a  total  eclipse  of  the  moon.  The  form  of  the  shadow  seen 
on  the  disk  of  the  moon  is  circular,  because  the  earth,  producing 
the  shadow,  is  a  sphere. 

Sometimes  the  object  that  is  temporarily  concealed  from  us 
by  the  interposition  of  some  other  body  between  it  and  the 
earth  is  a  star.  This  is  called  not  an  eclipse,  but  anoccultation. 
The  term  is  particularly  applied  to  the  occupation  of  a  fixed 
star  by  the  moon. 

Sometimes  the  sun  is  concealed  to  a  very  small  extent  by  the 
passage  of  Venus  or  INIercury  across  its  face;  in  the  same  way,  a 
bit  of  Jupiter  may  be  concealed  by  the  passage  of  one  or  another 
of  his  satellites  across  his  disk.     The  term  "transit"  is  applied 


90  tJNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

to  such  occurrences.  Astronomers,  calling  mathematics  to 
their  aid,  have  long  been  able  to  foretell  the  exact  time  of  these 
events;  and  they  have  often  travelled  half  around  the  earth  to 
witness  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  or  a  transit  of  Venus  in  the  hope  that 
observation  under  these  peculiar  circumstances  would  yield 
facts  of  much  scientific  value. 

The  causes  of  eclipses  are  simple  enough  when  they  are  un- 
derstood, but  they  have  often  thrown  millions  of  persons  into  a 
state  of  wild  alarm.  In  ancient  Rome  it  was  against  the  law  to 
speak  of  eclipses  as  due  to  natural  causes;  and  millions  of  the 
Chinese  still  believe  that  eclipses  are  caused  by  great  dragons 
that  are  trying  to  devour  the  sun  and  the  moon. 

Phases  of  the  Moon. — The  moon  always  presents  the  same 
face  to  the*  earth.  We  might  infer  that  the  moon  had  no 
rotation  on  its  axis,  but  this  would  be  incorrect.  As  the  moon 
revolves  around  the  earth  every  month,  all  sides  of  it  would  be 
seen  by  us  during  this  monthly  revolution  if  it  did  not  rotate  on 
its  axis.  The  reason  why  the  same  face  of  the  moon  is  always 
presented  to  the  earth  is  because  it  turns  on  its  axis  exactly  as 
fast  as  it  revolves  around  the  earth  and  in  the  same  direction. 
The  moon  makes  only  twelve  rotations  on  its  axis  in  a  year, 
while  the  earth  makes  a  complete  rotation  every  day. 

The  moon  does  not  always  present  the  same  appearance  to 
us,  and  these  differences  of  aspect  are  called  the  Phases  of  the 
Moon.  The  fact  that  now  a  larger  and  then  a  smaller  part  of 
the  lunar  face  turned  towards  us  are  illumined  by  the  sun  is  due 
to  the  moon's  position  in  the  heavens.  The  moon  is  a  dark 
body,  lighted  only  by  the  sun.  When  the  sun  is  shining  fully 
on  the  side  of  the  moon,  we  cannot  see  the  side  turned  towards 
us  is  dark  except  for  a  narrow  bright  border  on  one  edge,  which 
takes  the  form  of  a  crescent.  This  phase  is  called  the  New  Moon. 
As  the  moon  moves  along  in  its  revolution  and  completes  one- 


UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  91 

fourth  of  its  journey,  the  sun  hghts  up  one-half  of  the  side  we 
see,  the  other  side  remaining  dark.  The  moon  then  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  semicircle.  This  is  the  First  Quarter.  When 
half  the  revolution  is  completed,  the  face  we  see  is  opposite  the 
sun,  which  shines  fully  upon  it.  This  is  Full  Moon.  During 
the  second  half  of  the  revolution,  the  same  phases  are  repeated 
in  the  reverse  order,  and  we  have  the  Last  Quarter,  and  then  New 
Moon  again. 

Meteors. — These  are  small  bodies  that  move  through  space, 
most  of  them,  it  is  believed,  being  concentrated  into  large  or 
small  groups.  When  they  appear  in  our  atmosphere,  they  leave 
trails  of  light  and,  in  popular  language,  are  called  "shooting 
stars.'"  They  are  not  stars,  however,  but  cold  and  dark  bodies 
that  become  superheated  and  visible  only  when  they  enter  our 
atmosphere.  As  their  average  rate  of  motion  is  about  25  miles 
in  a  second,  the  friction  of  the  air,  when  they  dash  into  it,  gen- 
erates so  high  a  temperature  that  they  are  usually  dissolved  and 
completely  dissipated  before  they  reach  the  earth.  Some  of 
the  larger  of  these  bodies  resist  the  tremendous  heating  so  far 
that  the  residues  of  them  reach  the  earth  and  are  usually  called 
meteorites,  or  meteoric  stones.  Very  few  meteorites  have  been 
seen  to  fall,  and  there  are  not  over  nine  or  ten  in  the  museums 
or  private  collections  whose  fall  is  a  matter  of  record.  No  one 
knows  how  they  came  to  be  shooting  through  space,  but  they 
consist  of  substances  that  are  common  on  the  earth,  though 
their  chemical  and  mineralogical  combinations  are  such  that 
it  is  believed  that  they  may  be  recognized  as  meteors  even 
though  their  fall  is  not  seen. 

Some  of  them  are  nearly  pure  iron,  with  nickel,  and  others 
are  chiefly  stony  with  grains  of  iron.  It  is  believed  that  they  are 
falling  into  our  atmosphere  all  the  time,  and  of  the  shooting  stars 
that  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  any  close  observer  maj^  prob- 


92  UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

ably  see  an  average  of  five  an  hour,  though  his  range  of  vision  is 
only  200  to  300  miles  from  his  point  of  observation.  The  late 
Professor  Newton,  of  Yale  University,  estimated  that  if  ob- 
servers might  scan  the  entire  heavens,  the  number  visible  daily 
would  be  found  to  be  between  15,000,000  and  20,000,000. 
Professor  Rees,  of  Columbia  University,  writes  that  millions  of 
them  travel  together  in  the  same  swarm  or  group,  with  plenty 
of  room,  as  the  separate  bodies  are  frequently  miles  apart. 
The  best  time  to  observe  them  is  between  midnight  and  the 
twilight  before  sunrise. 

The  stream  of  meteorites  radiating  from  the  constellation  of 
Leo,  which  was  last  observed  by  telescope  in  18G6,  had  a  breadth 
of  not  less  than  100,000  miles  and  a  length  of  300,000  miles. 
It  had  been  observed  that  the  Leonids,  as  this  swarm  of  meteors 
is  called,  usually  reappeared  every  thirty-three  years,  and  they 
were  expected  again  in  1899,  but  failed  to  appear,  owing  doubt- 
less to  some  unknown  effect  of  the  planetary  pulls  that  dis- 
turbed their  motion,  for  the  group  is  subject  to  these  influences 
from  Jupiter,  Saturn  and  the  Earth.  The  first  definite  record  of 
the  fall  of  a  meteorite  was  in  Croatia  on  May  26,  1751.  The 
ninth  record  was  that  of  the  Mazapil  (Mexico)  meteorite,  weigh- 
ing lOj  pounds,  which  fell  on  November  27,  1885.  The  tenth 
fall  recorded  was  that  of  the  iron-nickel  meteorite,  weighing 
107  pounds,  that  fell  in  Johnson  County,  Ark.,  on  March  27, 
188G.  On  March  12,  1898,  a  meteorite  was  seen  to  drop  into 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  making  a  clean-cut  hole  30  feet  in  diameter 
through  the  ice;  fragments  of  it  were  fished  up  in  the  following 
year.  The  largest  meteorite  in  a  museum  was  brought  by  the 
Arctic  explorer  Peary  from  near  Cape  York,  Greenland,  to  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York. 

Comet. — The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  xo^iqtii?, 
meaning  "with  long  hair,"  and  was  doubtless  applied  to  comets 


UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  93 

on  account  of  the  hairy  appearance  of  the  himinous  vapors 
characteristic  of  them.  These  celestial  bodies  are  distinct  from 
all  others,  and  in  some  respects  are  not  yet  well  understood. 
They  consist  of  three  parts:  the  nucleus,  which,  through  the 
telescope,  looks  like  an  irregularly  formed  planet;  the  coma  or 
nebulous  light  surrounding  the  nucleus,  and  the  tail,  a  trail  of 
light  which  on  the  greater  comets  sometimes  extends  over  a  long 
arc  of  the  heavens.  They  appear  to  be  fragments  of  nebulous 
matter.  They  have  orbits  the  form  of  which,  however,  is  likely 
to  be  changed  by  the  attraction  of  the  sun  or  of  some  planet, 
and  sometimes  they  have  been  observed  to  start  off  on  orbits 
that  would  never  bring  them  back  again  to  human  ken.  Their 
number  is  supposed  to  be  very  large,  but  only  30  or  40  that  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  appear  in  a  century.  The  telescope 
usually  finds  five  or  six  every  year,  and  most  of  them  are  new 
ones.  A  few  of  the  known  comets  reappear  at  definite  intervals, 
while  others  have  never  been  seen  but  once,  and  are  not  likely 
to  return  for  centuries.  Eighteen  comets  are  known  that  re- 
volve around  the  sun  in  periods  of  from  three  to  seventy-five 
years. 

Climate. — The  average  weather  conditions  of  each  region 
make  its  climate.  No  other  influences  are  so  great  in  deciding 
what  animal  and  vegetable  life  may  thrive  in  any  particular 
region.  The  polar  lands,  the  lofty  mountains  and  plateaus 
need  only  higher  temperature  to  make  them  teem  with  vegetation. 

The  world  is  girdled  with  distinctive  zones  of  climate,  each 
of  which  has  enormous  influence  upon  man's  development  and 
welfare. 

In  the  tropical  zone  excessive  heat  and  rainfall  give  the 
greatest  luxuriance  to  vegetation.  Man  has  few  needs,  supplies 
them  easily,  and  his  energy  and  ambition  are  little  developed, 
because  he  does  not  have  to  struggle  for  existence. 


94 


TJNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  95 

In  the  polar  regions  the  struggle  for  life  is  very  severe,  and 
man  is  content  if  by  the  hardest  work  he  can  procure  food  and 
shelter  and  sufficient  skins  and  furs  to  keep  warmth  in  his  body. 
The  Antarctic  regions  have  no  human  inhabitants. 

In  the  temperate  zones,  between  the  climatic  extremes, 
where  nature  is  the  powerful  ally  of  human  endeavor,  man 
reaches  his  highest  prosperity  and  best  development. 

Temperature  and  rainfall  are  the  most  important  climatic 
elements.  Temperature  decreases  not  only  with  distance  from 
the  equator,  but  also  with  elevation  above  sea  le^el,  so  that 
frigid  conditions  may  prevail  on  the  high  mountains  and 
plateaus  even  of  the  tropical  zone,  as  well  as  at  the  Poles. 

Invisible  vapor  rising  from  water  surfaces  (evaporation)  is 
condensed  in  the  cooler  air  above  the  earth  and  falls  over  land 
and  sea  as  rain.  The  sea  is  the  largest  source  of  rain,  and  so 
most  lands  near  the  sea  have  much  more  of  it  than  the  far 
interior  of  the  continents.  But  some  of  the  prevailing  winds 
blowing  out  to  the  sea  from  the  land  are  dry  winds,  and  so  the 
coast  is  parched,  as  on  the  Atlantic  edge  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  the  winds  blow  from  the  sea  to  the 
land  they  may  become  saturated  with  water  vapor;  thus  the 
Amazon  Valley,  in  South  America,  is  drenched  bj^  heavy  rains 
that  the  northeast  trade  wind  brings.  Winds  are  the  trans- 
porters of  climate,  for  now  they  carry  warmth  to  the  cooler 
regions,  and  then  mitigate  the  glowing  heat  of  vast  areas  by 
chill  breezes  from  the  polar  latitudes.  They  also  scatter  the 
rain  far  and  wide,  so  that  the  forests  flourish  and  rich  harvests 
are  taken  from  the  fields. 

The  Winds. — Air  that  becomes  heated  expands  and  is 
lighter  than  the  surrounding  air.  The  heavier  air  around  it 
presses  in  and  lifts  the  lighter  air  upward.  There  is  difference 
then  in  the  atmospheric  pressures,  and  thus  air  is  set  in  motion. 


96  UNCLE   SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

We  may  properly  infer  from  these  statements  that  differences 
of  temperature  are  the  primary  causes  of  the  differences  in  the 
weight  or  pressure  of  the  air  to  which  winds  are  due. 

The  air  movement  is  kept  up  by  differences  in  atmospheric 
pressures  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Where  high  pressure 
prevails  the  air  moves  towards  a  region  of  low  pressure.  These 
differences  of  atmospheric  pressure  determine  the  direction  and 
force  of  the  winds. 

The  location  of  regions  of  high  and  low  pressure  is  shown  on 
the  weather  maps  by  the  use  of  isobars,  which  are  lines  drawn 
through  places  of  equal  pressure.  You  may  observe  on  these 
maps  that  the  arrows  indicating  the  direction  of  the  wind  are 
pointed  away  from  the  areas  of  high  pressure  and  towards  those 
of  low  pressure.  The  winds  of  average  velocity  in  the  United 
States  blow  at  the  rate  of  from  5  to  14  miles  an  hour.  Their 
velocity  depends  upon  the  steepness  of  the  pressure  slope  or, 
in  other  words,  the  rate  of  the  change  of  pressure  along  any  line. 
Thus,  when  the  isobars  showing  changes  of  pressure  are  close 
together,  the  pressure  slope  is  steep  and  the  wind  is  correspond- 
ingly high.  Tornadoes  sometimes  blow  at  the  rate  of  200  miles 
an  hour. 

Winds  are  called  Constant  when  they  always  persist  in  one 
general  direction,  like  the  northeast  and  southeast  trade  winds. 
The  trade  winds  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  lower  air  in  the 
heated  equatorial  regions  is  always  warmer  and  lighter  than  the 
lower  air  to  the  north  or  south  of  them,  and  consequently  there  is 
always  a  movement  of  air  towards  the  tropical  belt  from  the 
cooler  regions  north  or  south  of  it.  This  movement  of  the  lower 
air  currents  towards  the  equator  is  deflected  to  the  west  by  the 
rotation  of  the  earth;  as  winds  are  named  by  the  direction  from 
which  they  blow,  we  have  north  of  the  equator  the  northeast 
trade  winds  and  south  of  it  the  southeast  trade  winds. 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  97 

Winds  are  called  Periodic  if  they  blow  regularly,  part  of  the 
time  in  one  direction,  and  part  of  the  time  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. We  all  know  that  the  land  is  warmer  in  summer  than  the 
sea,  and  that  the  sea  is  warmer  in  winter  than  the  land.  When 
the  sea  is  warmer,  the  air  over  it  is  warmer  and  lighter  than  that 
over  the  land,  and  so  there  is  a  movement  of  air  from  the  land 
to  the  sea.  These  periodic  winds  are  most  marked  in  parts  of 
south  and  eastern  Asia.  The  high  plateaus  are  intensely  hot  in 
summer,  the  air  over  them  is  rarefied,  and  the  heavier  air  over 
the  sea  moves  to  the  land.  In  winter  the  conditions  are  re- 
versed, and  the  air  movement  is  from  the  land  to  the  sea.  These 
periodic  winds  over  the  Asian  lands  and  waters  are  called 
monsoons. 

Another  variety  of  periodic  winds  may  be  observed  along  sea 
cwasts  where  the  adjacent  land  and  water  are  nearly  of  the  same 
temperature;  but  the  land  is  a  little  warmer  by  day  and  cooler 
by  night  than  the  sea,  causing  a  constant  succession  of  sea  and 
land  breezes. 

Temporary  winds  are  caused  by  differences  of  temperature 
in  different  areas,  for  we  all  know  that  the  whole  of  a  land  or 
water  surface  is  seldom  equally  heated;  and  in  the  lower  at- 
mosphere the  air  will  move  towards  the  warmer  places. 

Some  winds  are  of  great  importance  in  commerce;  such  are 
the  northeastern  and  southeastern  trades,  that  blow  steadily, 
though  with  variable  force,  all  the  year;  the  monsoons  of  Asiatic 
waters,  which  in  winter  blow  south  from  Asia  over  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  the  China  Sea,  and  in  summer  north  .from  these  seas 
over  the  land ;  also  the  anti-trades  or  western  winds,  between  the 
fortieth  and  fiftieth  parallels  in  both  hemispheres,  which  speed 
sailing  vessels  from  America  to  Europe  and  from  Australia 
around  Cape  Horn. 

Winds  have  important  influence  in  modifying  the  forms  of  the 


98 


UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY  99 

land  surfaces.  In  the  deserts  they  pile  up  long  ridges  of  sand 
called  sand  dunes.  Travelers  on.  the  trans-Caspian  railroad 
may  see  these  parallel  dunes,  like  ocean  waves,  stretching  away 
to  the  horizon.  The  northeast  trade  winds,  starting  in  the 
Sahara,  carry  clouds  of  sand  over  the  edge  of  the  fertile  lands 
to  the* south,  slowly  filling  the  valleys  and  destroying  vegetation. 
During  great  desert  windstorms  the  air  is  so  -charged  with  sand 
that  it  is  difficult  to  breathe.  Men  cover  their  heads  with  cloth 
and  lie  on  their  faces,  and  camels  hold  their  noses  close  to  the 
ground. 

Waterspouts. — Are  due  to  exceedingly  violent  cyclones 
which  occur  at  sea.  Gyratory  motion  is  established  by  the 
wind.  The  funnel  shaped  clouds  which  are  formed  reach  the 
surface  of  the  water  and  suck  up  huge  columns  of  the  liquid  to 
which  they  impart  a  whirling  motion.  When  the  water  reaches 
a  certain  height  it  breaks  into  spray  and  drops  back  into 
the  sea. 

Sandstorms. — Whenever  tke  same  wind  phenomenon  takes 
place  over  a  desert  stretch  of  land,  sand  instead  of  water  is 
sucked  up  with  the  result  that  a  funnel  shaped  column  of  sand 
rises  into  the  air  only  to  break  up  into  particles  that  are  scat- 
tered over  vast  areas. 

Tides. — Twice  a  day  the  edge  of  the  seas  advances  upon  the 
lands,  floods  the  bays  and  mouths  of  rivers,  and  then  as  slowly 
retreats.  This  regular  motion  of  the  seas  is  the  tide  coming  in 
and  going  out.  It  is  caused  by  the  strong  attractive  force  of 
the  moon  and  the  lesser  influence  of  the  sun,  the  water  yielding 
to  the  strain  while  the  land  is  able  to  resist  it.  Tides  are  very 
helpful  to  commerce  in  many  cases,  as  in  the  lower  Thames, 
where  large  vessels  could  not  ascend  to  London  if  they  did  not 
ride  upon  the  inflowing  tides. 

Ocean  Currents. — Our  Flat-Globe  outlines  the  great  ocean 
currents.     They  are  caused  by  the  prevailing  winds,  and  so  ha.ve 


100       UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY 

about  the  same  course  over  the  seas.  They  affect  the  speed  even 
of  steamships;  and  saiHng- vessels  endeavor  to  keep  out  of  the 
track  of  such  currents  as  would  retard  their  progress.  A  Pacific 
sailing-ship  starting  from  Panama  for  the  Philippines,  for  ex- 
ample, might  gain  forty  miles  a  day  by  steering  into  the  equatorial 
ourr'ent  flowing  west,  while  it  would  lose  nearly  as  much  if  it 
sailed  in  the  equatorial  counter-current  moving  east. 

It  was  thought  not  long  ago  that  the  warm  Gulf  Stream  of 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Japan  current  of  the  Pacific,  the  cold 
Labrador  current  and  other  ocean  streams  had  much  influence 
upon  the  temperature  of  the  land.  This  view  now  has  few 
advocates.  The  Gulf  Stream  as  a  distinct  current  really  ter- 
minates in  the  mid-Atlantic.  It  is  not  the  Gulf  Stream,  but 
the  prevailing  westerly  winds,  tempered  as  they  are  by  the 
comparatively  warm  surface  of  the  ocean,  that  are  now  believed 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  mild  climate  of  the  northwest  coasts  of 
Europe  and  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States. 

Ocean  Depths. — The  seas  are  the  greatest  highways  of 
commerce,  and  many  of  the  routes  across  them,  marked  with 
the  distances  from  port  to  port,  are  traced  upon  our  Globe. 
Ocean  exploration  has  greatly  advanced  within  recent  years, 
and  many  secrets  of  the  sea  depths  have  been  revealed.  While 
the  ocean  basins  on  the  whole  are  steep-sided  and  flat-floored, 
some  great  depressions  and  chasms  are  discovered.  The  great- 
est depth  yet  found  in  the  Pacific  is  32,114  feet,  near  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  Another  abysmal  depth  to  the  east  of  Japan  is 
over  27,600  feet  beneath  the  surface.  Through  the  mid- 
Atlantic  extends  a  ridge  stretching  north  and  south,  with  water 
only  9,000  to  12,000  feet  above  it,  while  on  either  side  the  depths 
sink  to  15,000  and  18,000  feet.  The  greatest  depth  yet  dis- 
covered in  the  Atlantic  is  27,366  feet  in  a  small  depression  about 
100  miles  north  of  Porto  Rico. 


101 


102       UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Distribution  of  the  Lands. — Only  one  of  the  six  great 
continents,  Australia,  is  wholly  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere; 
North  America,  Europe  and  Asia,  excepting  a  few  Asiatic 
islands,  are  entirely  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Much  the 
larger  part  of  the  lands  lies  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  form- 
ing almost  a  continuous  ring  around  the  North  Pole,  and  stretch- 
ing away  to  the  southward  in  long,  irregular  masses  which  taper 
into  points. 

The  continents  are  the  largest  areas  of  land.  Europe  and 
Asia  are  really  one  continent,  but  on  account  of  their  vast  ex- 
tent, it  is  more  convenient  to  treat  each  of  them  as  one  of  the 
"Grand  Divisions."  The  term  Eurasian  has  recently  come  into 
use  to  designate  both  continents  together. 

Hidden  under  the  edge  of  the  oceans  that  lap  the  continental 
shores  is  usually  found  a  belt  of  sea-bottom  sloping  very  gently 
seaward  until  a  depth  of  about  600  feet  is  reached,  where  the 
slope  becomes  more  abrupt  and  soon  reaches  oceanic  depths. 
This  belt  of  sea-floor  is  called  the  continental  shelf.  Sometimes 
it  is  wide  and  of  great  importance,  because  in  these  shallow 
waters  the  lai'ger  sea  fisheries  of  the  world  are  grouped. 

Besides  the  continents  there  are  two  classes  of  islands — 
continental  and  oceanic  islands.  Most  of  the  continental 
islands  are  near  the  continents  and  are  formed  of  the  same  rocks, 
such  as  limestones,  sandstones,  granites,  etc.  The  largest  con- 
tinental islands  are  Greenland,  New  Guinea,  Borneo,  Mada- 
gascar and  Sumatra. 

Oceanic  islands  may  be  very  remote  from  large  land  masses, 
as  most  of  the  Pacific  Islands,  or  they  may  be  comparatively 
near  the  continents,  as  the  Canary  Islands  or  the  Lesser  Antilles. 
They  are  chiefly  the  result  of  volcanic  outpourings  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea,  or  are  upbuilt  by  coral  insects  in  shallow  waters. 

Movements  of  the  Earth's  Crust. — We  know  that  large 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        103 

parts  of  the  land  masses  were  once  under  water,  for  many  of  the 
rocks  were  formed  by  deposits  of  sands  or  the  bones  of  marine 
animals  on  the  sea-floor.  This  shows  that  the  earth's  crust  is 
subject  to  very  slow  up-and-down  movements  which  are  still 
in  progress,  and  may  be  best  observed  along  the  margins  of  the 
seas;  for  we  speak  of  the  gradual  uplifting  of  parts  of  the  coasts 
of  Scandinavia,  of  the  gradual  sinking  of  the  coast  of  New  Jersey, 
and  of  other  similar  movements  that  are  now  in  progress.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  material  carried  by  rivers  into  the  sea 
increases  considerably  the  weight  of  the  ocean  floor  at  their 
mouths.  This  addition  in  weight  causes  landslides.  Some 
scientists  believe  that  land  disturbances  such  as  earthquakes 
in  New  Mexico  are  due  to  the  quantity  of  material  deposited  by 
the  Mississippi  River  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

These  movements  which  lift  or  lower  wide  areas  of  land  are 
very  different  from  the  quick,  sharp  earthquake  shocks  that 
sometimes  lower  the  level  of  areas  by  a  number  of  feet,  as  in 
the  New  Madrid  earthquake  of  1811. 

Another  kind  of  earth-movement  is  that  resulting  from  the 
contraction  of  the  earth's  crust  due  to  cooling;  by  this  contrac- 
tion the  rocks  of  many  areas  may  be  crushed  together,  folded, 
broken,  and  here  and  there  lifted  into  lofty  mountain  ranges. 
Other  mountains  may  be  the  result  simply  of  the  dissection  of 
high  plateaus  by  running  water  which  excavates  valleys  through 
the  plateaus.  The  parts  not  worn  away  may  be  called  moun- 
tains.    This  was  the  origin  of  the  Catskill  Mountains. 

Forms  of  the  Lands. — The  earth  has  a  great  diversity  of 
land  forms,  and  they  have  marked  effect  in  shaping  the  dis- 
tribution and  occupations  of  man.  Coasts  that  are  high,  rocky 
and  without  inlets,  like  the  southern  shore  of  Sicily,  repel  sea- 
farers and  can  have  little  or  no  shipping  trade.  Low,  sandy, 
uniform  coasts  sloping  very  gradually  into  the  sea,  like  the 


104        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

western  shore  of  the  Golf  of  PechiH,  China,  are  impediments  to 
commerce.  Few  Chinese  who  Hve  near  this  coast  follow  the 
sea  for  a  living.  Much  of  the  time  the  sea  is  gnawing  at  the 
coasts,  eating  away  the  softer  rocks,  and  thus  forming  gulfs 
and  bays,  while  the  harder  rocks,  resisting  the  attacks  of  the 
waves,  jut  out  as  headlands  and  capes. 

The  Atlantic  coasts  of  the  United  States  are  mostly  low,  with 
many  deep  recesses  where  shipping  is  safe  from  ocean  storms. 
Such  a  coast  is  highly  favorable  for  commerce.  The  Pacific 
coast  of  our  country,  on  the  other  hand,  is  high  and  rocky,  with 
only  a  few  good  harbors;  but  these  are  so  favorably  distributed 
that  they  admirably  serve  the  needs  of  commerce. 

As  our  Globe  shows,  Europe,  Asia  and  North  America  have 
very  broken  coast  lines,  and  the  sea  in  many  places  penetrates 
deeply  into  the  land,  giving  the  inhabitants  large  harbor  facili- 
ties. On  the  other  hand,  Africa,  South  America  and  Australia 
have  comparatively  unbroken  coast  lines,  and  in  this  are  at  a 
disadvantage  in  commercial  pursuits. 

Erosion. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  general  waste  of  land 
by  rivers,  winds,  or  other  agencies.  The  infinite  variety  of 
form  which  the  earth's  surface  presents  is  due  in  large  measure 
to  this  process.  Sometimes  it  is  a  mountain  the  sides  of  which 
have  been  carved  into  fantastic  shapes,  or  else  it  is  a  plain  with 
gentle  undulatory  features.  As  soon  as  mountains  have  been 
formed  a  general  process  of  levelling  begins.  The  streams  that 
flow  down  the  mountain  sides  carry  away  much  material. 
Wide  valleys  are  thus  created.  In  these  valleys  waters  may 
begin  cutting  new  beds  for  themselves  and  cause  gorges  and 
canyons  to  intersect  the  former  even  surface.  Any  change  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  which  implies  wearing  away  of  the  rock 
material  comes  under  the  head  of  erosion. 

Mountain  Ranges. — Our  Globe  shows  the  chief  mountain 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY        105 

ranges  which  extend  along  the  coasts  or  through  the  interior 
of  the  continents  and  islands.  They  have  large  influence  in 
fixing  boundary  lines  between  nations  and  upon  commerce  and 
climate.  With  the  Pyrenees,  between  France  and  Spain;  the 
Alps,  between  Austria  and  Italy;  and  the  Himalayas,  between 
Tibet  and  India,  we  readily  conclude  that  mountain  chains 
often  form  not  only  natural  boundaries  between  nations,  but 
also  between  the  languages  of  men. 

They  often  impede  commerce.  Along  the  southeast  coast 
of  China  are  a  number  of  fine  natural  ports,  such  as  Amoy  and 
Fuchau,  but  their  importance  is  greatly  diminished  by  the  fact 
that  mountains  stretch  between  them  and  the  densely  peopled 
valley  of  the  Yangtse,  so  that  trade  between  this  coast  line  and 
the  interior  is  difficult  and  costly.  If  it  were  not  for  the  Arlberg 
tunnel,  intercourse  between  Austria  and  Switzerland  would  be 
very  difficult ;  and  Italy  would  be  almost  cut  off  from  France  and 
Central  Europe  if  the  Mont  Cenis,  St.  Gotthard,  and  Simplon 
tunnels  had  not  been  constructed  through  the  Alps. 

All  the  railroads  from  the  Pacific  that  have  climbed  the  Andes 
Mountains  of  South  America  rise  two  miles  or  more  into  the  air. 
It  is  fortunate  for  the  United  States  that  nature  provided  com- 
paratively low  passes  among  the  Appalachian  ranges  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  as 
gateways  for  great  railroad  routes;  and  that  the  passes  through 
which  our  trains  cross  our  great  Western  mountain  ranges  are 
reached  by  long  and  gentle  slopes,  so  that  few  gradients  are 
very  steep. 

Mountains  are  useful  in  many  ways.  They  supply  large 
water  power.  Our  Western  miners  use  this  power  to  drive 
mining  machinery.  The  wheels  of  industry  in  Switzerland  are 
turned  by  the  torrents  that  descend  the  Alps.  Most  mountains 
are  clad  with  forests,   and  mountains  are  among  the  largest 


106       UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA   CANAL   AND   WORLD    HISTORY 

sources  of  forest  wealth.  Water  is  retained  in  the  form  of  snow 
and  ice  on  the  higher  slopes  till  it  is  needed  in  the  summer 
season  of  crops  for  irrigation  far  below.  Mountain  scenery  is  as 
substantial  a  source  of  gain  as  wheat  or  hay.  Tourists  leave 
millions  of  dollars  in  Switzerland  every  year,  and  our  finest 
mountain  regions  are  atti'acting  more  sightseers  every  year. 
Mountains  also  supply  a  large  part  of  the  metals  and  minerals, 
and  are  therefore  the  scene  of  large  mining  industries. 

In  every  land  we  may  see  the  effect  of  mountain  ranges  upon 
climate.  Our  Pacific  ranges  prevent  the  free  circulation  of  rain- 
laden  winds  from  the  Pacific,  which  part  with  their  moisture  on 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  so  that  the  great 
mountains  to  the  east  of  them  are  arid.  The  Alps  shield  the 
Riviera  from  the  cold  northeast  winds,  so  that  Nice  is  warmer 
than  Rome  in  winter.  The  mountains  of  Scandinavia  stop  the 
warm  moist  winds  from  the  Atlantic,  so  that  the  Atlantic  coasts 
enjoy  the  milder  oceanic  climate,  while  the  Baltic  coast  is  very 
cold  in  winter. 

The  highest  mountain  in  the  world  is  Mount  Everest,  29,002 
feet,  in  the  Himalayas,  on  the  border  between  Tibet  and  Nepal; 
the  highest  mountain  of  North  America  is  Mount  McKinley, 
in  Alaska,  20,300  feet;  of  South  America,  Aconcagua,  in  Argen- 
tina, 23,081  feet;  of  Europe,  Mont  Blanc,  in  France,  15,780;  in 
Africa,  Kilimanjaro,  19,680;  in  Australia,  Mt.  Townsend,  7,347. 
The  average  height  of  land  is  calculated  to  be  2,440  feet. 

Plains  and  Plateaus. — Most  flat  lands  of  the  world  lie 
between  parallel  mountain  ranges  that  are  often  very  far  apart. 
Sometimes  they  lie  in  a  narrow  belt  along  the  sea,  and  then  are 
called  coastal  plains.  When  plains  rise  to  a  height  of  more  than 
1,000  feet  above  sea  level,  they  are  usually  called  table-lands  or 
plateaus.  These  plains  and  plateaus  are  not  a  mere  dead  level, 
for  they  have  undulations,  ridges  and  valleys;  but  these  heights 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 


107 


or  hollows  are  not  sufficiently  pronounced  to  aflfect  their  generally 
level  character.  In  the  United  States  we  see  the  Atlantic 
coastal  plain  between  the  Appalachians  and  the  sea,  and  the 
vast  region  of  plain,  prairie  and  plateau  that  stretches  between 
the  Appalachians  and  our  great  Western  ranges. 

Every  continent  has  wide  plains  far  inland  without  sufficient 
rainfall  to  nurture  forests  or  cultivated  crops      Grass  here  takes 


Some  Forms  of  Mountains. 

the  place  of  larger  vegetation,  the  pastoral  life  is  developed  and 
grazing  Is  the  chief  pursuit. 

Valleys. — Between  neighboring  mountain  chains  are  valleys, 
which  usually  form  the  bed  of  rivers;  and  rivers  flowing  across 
plains  and  plateaus  excavate  many  valleys.  Valleys  through 
which  navigable  rivers  flow  are  the  most  easily  developed  parts 
of  the  continents.  It  was  these  valleys  that  were  settled  first 
when  man  began  to  carry  his  industries  and  commerce  into  the 
interior  of  the  continents.     Thus  great  river  valleys  came  to  be 


108        UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HLSTORY 

called  the  creators  of  history,  because  in  the  early  days  of  de- 
velopment it  was  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nile,  Ganges,  Indus  and 
other  large  rivers  that  the  human  race  made  most  progress. 

Water  Divides  and  Basins. — The  boundary  between  slopes 
leading  to  different  streams  or  rivers  is  called  a  divide.  The 
divide  is  often  easily  recognizable.  It  may  be  the  crest  of  a 
mountain  range,  or  at  least  a  ridge  that  is  plainly  above  the 
general  level.  Frequently,  however,  on  plains  and  plateaus  the 
divide  is  almost  or  quite  undistinguishable.  In  this  case  its 
course  is  uncertain  and  variable.  There  are  rivers  in  Canada 
where  the  divide  passes  through  some  small  lake  that  is  so  evenly 
balanced  between  two  water  systems  that  it  sends  a  little  stream 
to  each  of  them;  another  illustration  is  Two  Ocean  Creek,  in  the 
Yellowstone  National  Park,  where  a  bit  of  water  is  diverted 
sometimes  toward  the  Pacific  and  sometimes  toward  the 
Atlantic. 

The  area  included  within  the  divide  that  separates  a  stream 
and  its  tributaries  from  another  river  system  is  called  the  basin 
of  that  stream.  Thus  the  basin  of  the  Missouri  River  is  the 
entire  area  drained  by  that  river;  and  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi 
system  includes  the  vast  area  whose  drainage  is  carried  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  Mississippi  delta.  The  term  water- 
shed is  sometimes  erroneously  applied  to  a  river  basin.  It  is 
more  correctly  used  to  designate  a  divide,  but  the  terms  "divide" 
or  "water  parting"  for  the  boundaries  between  river  basins  are 
preferable. 

Seas. — Seas  cover  three-fifths  of  the  world's  surface.  They 
affect  man's  life  and  activity  in  several  ways:  as  climatic  agents 
they  are  the  source  of  rain  and  tend  to  equalize  temperature;  as 
highways  they  provide  cheaper  routes  of  transportation  than 
the  lands  afford ;  as  a  source  of  food  and  other  commercial  com- 
modities they  contribute  most  of  the  fish  that  man  consumes. 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL,   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        109 

seal  furs,  seal  oil,  whale  oil  and  bone,  pearls  from  the  pearl 
fisheries,  large  quantities  of  salt  from  evaporated  water,  etc. 

Lakes. — The  irregularities  of  the  earth's  surface  due  to 
crumpling  or  erosion  have  left  many  depressions  below  the 
general  level  into  which  drainage  is  drawn,  thus  forming  lakes. 
Most  of  these  lakes  overflow,  and  their  surplus  is  discharged  by 
streams  into  the  sea.  The  mineral  matter  that  accumulates 
is  thus  removed  and  the  lake  waters  remain  fresh.  Other  lakes 
are  formed  in  depressions  where  there  is  no  outflow  because  the 
water  receipts  are  fully  counterbalanced  by  evaporation.  In  such 
lakes  the  salts  washed  from  the  soil  and  carried  into  the  lake 
basins  accumulate;  the  waters  are  therefore  not  potable,  and  the 
lakes  are  called  salt  lakes.  The  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah  is  the 
most  important  lake  of  this  kind  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
This  body  of  water  is  gradually  receding.  The  waters  evaporate, 
and  their  salt  contents  are  added  to  the  remaining  water  so  that 
the  lake  carries  more  and  more  salt.  One  of  the  "most  famous 
salt  lakes  is  the  Dead  Sea,  in  Palestine,  which  lies  far  below  the 
level  of  the  oceans  and  fills  a  small  hollow  surrounded  by  high- 
lands. 

Large  lakes  are  very  useful  in  commerce,  because  they  permit 
the  transportation  of  freight  in  the  interior  of  the  continents  at 
small  cost.  The  largest  system  of  lake  navigation  in  the  world 
is  provided  by  the  Great  Lakes  of  North  xVmerica,  on  which 
steamers  carry  at  low  freight  rates  many  times  the  tonnage  of 
commodities  that  are  borne  through  the  Suez  Canal. 

Distribution  of  Animal  Life. — No  lands  are  so  desolate 
that  they  do  not  give  support  to  a  considerable  variety  of  life. 
Peary  found  flowers  and  grass,  musk  oxen -and  hare  on  the  most 
northern  bit  of  land  which  exploration  has  revealed  to  us.  The 
animals  that  are  most  useful  to  man  cover  the  whole  of  the  tem- 
perate regions,  and  recently  their  numbers  have  been  increasing 


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110 


UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        111 

in  the  tropics.  The  horse,  which  is  found  everywhere  in  tem- 
perate and  moderately  warm  countries,  is  being  introduced  to 
some  extent  into  the  tropical  Congo  region.  At  seventy  stations 
in  the  Congo  State,  cattle  from  Europe  are  being  successfully 
reared.  Sheep  are  raised  in  most  inhabited  regions,  woolless 
varieties  being  reared  in  hot  countries.  The  range  of  the  dog 
as  a  draft  animal  extends  through  the  northern  third  of  North 
America,  and  far  towards  the  Pole,  where  he  hauls  sledges,  while 
in  Belgium  and  some  other  parts  of  Europe  he  draws  carts  to 
market.  The  hunting  and  fishing  tribes  of  northern  Europe 
and  Asia  use  the  reindeer  as  their  means  of  transport.  Tlie  yak 
is  the  conspicuous  pack  and  saddle  animal  over  the  Himalayan 
passes  and  on  the  high  plain  of  Tibet.  The  one-humped  camel, 
or  dromedary,  is  the  "ship  of  the  desert"  in  the  northern  third 
of  Africa,  while  the  stronger  bactrian  camel  (two  humps)  is  the 
beast  of  burden  in  central  Asia. .  The  donkey  is  important  in  the 
countries  of  the  Mediterranean  and  in  Mexico,  elsewhere  in 
America  he  is  chiefly  represented  by  his  progeny,  the  mule. 

The  fisheries  are  the  largest  source  of  wealth  derived  from 
the  wild  animals.  British  America,  northern  Russia  and  Siberia 
are  the  regions  from  which  most  of  the  furs  are  derived,  but 
the  supply  has  been  greatly  diminished  by  over  hunting.  Civil- 
ized governments  now  endeavor  to  protect  all  wild  animals  that 
are  useful  to  man  so  that  they  may  not  be  exterminated.  There 
are,  however,  no  game  laws  for  the  protection  of  harmful  beasts 
of  prey,  and  most  of  the  larger  carnivorous  animals,  such  as 
the  lion,  tiger,  leopard  and  others,  are  being  constantly  depleted 
in  number  and  are  doomed  to  complete  destruction  within  the 
next  few  decades. 

Distribution  of  Vegetable  Life. — Most  human  occupations 
are  confined  to  the  regions  in  which  forests  and  cultivable  and 
grass  lands  are  predominant.     The  greatest  regions  of  agriculture 


112       UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY 


are  in  the  northern  and  southern  temperate  zones;  grassy  plains 
of  enormous  extent  in  North  and  South  America  and  Asia 
nourish  countless  flocks  and  herds.  Most  of  the  wood  supplies 
of  the  world  that  enter  largely  into  commerce  come  from  the 
great  forest  areas  of  the  north  temperate  zone  which  girdle  the 
land  surface  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the  30th  parallel, 
making  the  United  States,  Canada  and  Russia  the  foremost 
wood-producing  countries  of  the  world.  Vast  tropical  forests, 
especially  in  Latin  America  and  Africa,  yield  hardwoods  that 
are  in  much  demand,  and,  above  all,  rubber,  which  is  extracted 
from  a  considerable  variety  of  trees  and  vines. 

The  Races  of  Men. — There  are  a  great  many  divisions  of 
the  human  race,  and  detailed  study  shows  that  many  of  them  are 
distinguished  from  one  another  only 
by  very  slight  differences.  Formerly 
classified  into  five  great  groups,  a 
process  of  simplification  has  finally 
reduced  them  to  three  types — the 
black,  yellow,  and  white  races.  The 
population  of  the  world  is  now  estim- 
ated at  about  1,623,300,000,  of  which 
over  150,000,000  are  believed  to  be 
included  in  the  black,  600,000,000 
in  the  yellow,  and  750,000,000  in 
the  white  types. 

The  races  of  the  black  type  are  least  civilized.  The  native 
home  of  the  greater  part  of  them  is  in  Africa,  south  of  the  Sahara, 
and  they  are  classed  in  the  two  subdivisions  of  negroes  in  the 
North  and  Bantus,  who  inhabit  the  whole  of  the  great  table- 
lands of  that  continent  south  of  the  Sudan.  They  are  also 
thinly  scattered  in  parts  of  southern  Asia  and  in  the  Asian  and 
some  of  the  Pacific  islands,  the  aborigines  of  Australia,  the 


The  Black  Type. 


UNCLE   SAM  S   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY 


113 


Li  Hung  Chang — The  Yellow 
Type. 


Papuans  of   New   Guinea,   and   Veddahs  of   Ceylon,   and  tlie 

Negritos    of   the   Philii^pines,   being 

most  prominent.   For  three  centuries 

the  slave  traders  carried  large  num- 
bers     of     African    blacks     to     the 

Americas,  where  millions  of  them  now 

live.    The  black  races  are  backward 

in     intellectual     development,     and 

have  never  succeeded  in  establishing 

perfected    social    organizations;    but 

those   of   Africa  in  particular  have 

shown  themselves  to  be  susceptible 

of  great  improvement.     The  black 

type  has  relatively  the  smallest  part 

in  the  world's  trade. 

The  races  of  the  yellow  type  include  the  Mongolians  of  Asia, 

the  Turks  and  Magyars  or  Huns  of  Europe,  the  Eskimos  and 

Indians  of  America,  and  the  peoples 
of  the  Malay  and  Polynesian  islands. 
The  INIongol,  the  most  important 
and  best  characterized  branch  of  the 
yellow  type,  has  a  number  of  varie- 
ties (Chinese,  Japanese,  Annamese, 
etc.)  living  in  east  Asia.  The  Jap- 
anese and  Chinese  are  highly  civilized 
and  take  an  important  part  in  tlie 
world's  commerce.  The  Malayan 
races  are  widely  disseminated  over 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  include 
the  Hovas,  the  most  progressive  race 

of  Madagascar.     The  Tartars  and  Turks  advanced    from    the 

steppes  of  Central  Asia  and  settled  in  eastern  Europe.     The 


Washington — The  White 
Type. 


lU        UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL  AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Finns  and  Magyars  were  also  Asiatic  emigrants  who  settled  in 
northern  and  central  Europe. 

The  white  races,  comprising  the  most  civilized,  advanced 
and  progressive  peoples  of  the  world,  are  divided  into  three  great 
groups:  Hamitic,  Semitic,  and  Aryan.  The  Hamites  of  North 
Africa  (Berbers,  Tuaregs,  Gallas,  Somalis,  and  others)  are  as 
dark  in  color  as  many  races  of  the  black  type,  are  fanatical 
Mohammedans,  and  oppose  the  introduction  among  them  of 
Western  civilization.  The  Semites  include  the  Arabs  of  Arabia, 
Syria  and  North  Africa,  and  the  Jews  who  are  scattered  over  the 
whole  world.  The  Aryans  are  subdivided  into  the  Keltic, 
Teutonic,  Romanic  and  Slavonic  races,  who  inhabit  the  most  of 
Europe.  They  have  long  been  spreading  rapidly,  and  now 
occupy  nearly  a  third  of  Asia,  have  political  supremacy  over  most 
of  Africa,  and  have  settled  there  in  large  numbers,  especially 
in  the  north  and  south,  and  inhabit  almost  the  whole  of  Europe, 
most  of  America  and  the  larger  part  of  Oceania.  The  Romanic 
races  of  south  Europe  have  occupied  Latin  America,  the  Teu- 
tonic races  of  north  Europe  have  spread  over  North  America 
and  Australia,  and  the  Slavonic  Russians  have  occupied  the 
whole  of  north  Asia.  The  Teutonic  races  command  the  greater 
part  of  the  world's  commerce,  have  done  more  than  any  other 
branch  of  the  human  family  to  establish  good  government  under 
which  life  and  property  are  protected  and  business  enterprises 
are  fostered,  and  have  borne  the  most  prominent  part  in  extend- 
ing civilization  and  developing  natural  resources. 

Man's  Conquest  of  Nature. — All  lower  animals  collect 
the  food  they  need,  and  many  of  them  are  also  humble  manu- 
facturers. The  bee  makes  honey,  the  spider  spins  its  web,  the 
beaver  dams  the  streams,  and  many  animals  build  shelters. 

In  his  primitive  state,  man  was  much  like  the  lower  animals. 
He  collected  the  necessities  of  life,  and  was  a  manufacturer  on  a 


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116       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

small  scale.  He  was  able  also  through  his  intellectual  superiority 
to  fashion  rude  implements  to  aid  him  in  his  work,  and  this  the 
lower  animals  could  not  do.  Animal  instinct  was  the  impelling 
influence  that  moved  man  in  this  primitive  stage. 

Experience  constantly  enlightened  man.  It  taught  him  how 
to  make  better  implements,  and  helped  him  in  many  ways.  One 
idea  that  gradually  dawned  upon  him  was  that  if  he  planted  and 
cared  for  certain  vegetable  growths,  they  would  provide  him  with 
more  and  better  food  than  if  he  depended  simply  upon  wild 
fruits,  grains  and  roots.     He  began  to  till  the  soil. 

Each  generation  discovered  methods  for  better  tillage,  found 
new  activities,  and  invented  better  methods  of  doing  things. 
Each  bequeathed  what  it  learned  to  its  successors;  and  so  from 
age  to  age  man  benefitted  by  experience  that  came  down  to  him 
from  his  fathers. 

The  Era  of  Scientific  Progress. — At  last  man  reached  the 
stage  in  which  he  was  able  to  inquire  deeply  into  the  secrets  of 
nature,  and  to  make  great  discoveries  and  inventions  that 
multiply  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life,  and  the  products 
of  human  brain  and  hand.  This  is  the  present  era  of  scientific 
development. 

^Ye  may  briefly  consider  one  phase  of  this  development — 
that  of  transportation  and  communication. 

Slow  and  poor  transportation  has  meant  starvation  at  times, 
as  in  China  and  in  the  England  of  the  Middle  Ages.  This  is 
when  roads  are  so  poor  that  people  die  in  one  part  of  a  country 
before  grain  can  reach  them  from  another.  There  was  little 
commerce  between  Asia  and  Europe  vvhen  boats  were  afraid  to 
venture  out  to  sea,  and  only  camel  trains  at  Constantinople 
brought  the  East  and  AYest  within  touch. 

Four  hundred  years  ago  only  a  few  ocean  vessels  had  dared 
to  venture  far  out  of  sight  of  laud.     The  sailing-vessel  then 


117 


118       UNCLE    SAM  S   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

commanded  the  seas  for  three  centuries  until  about  1840,  when 
steamships  began  to  supplant  them.  They  travel,  on  an  average, 
four  times  as  fast  as  the  sailing-vessel. 

Columbus's  first  trip  across  the  Atlantic  was  made  in  seventy 
days.  Nearly  300  years  later  the  average  time  across  the  ocean 
was  about  H  days;  then  steamships  brought  in  the  erjLof  fast 
travel.  The  first  steamship  crossed  the  Atlantic  from  Savannah 
to  Liverpool  in  22  days.  The  time  was  reduced  until  to-day  the 
"ocean  greyhounds"  pass  between  Sandy  Hook  and  Queenstown 
in  less  than  six  days,  providing  for  their  passengers  every  luxury 
and  convenience. 

Ocean  transportation  became  not  only  fast,  but  cheap. 
When  iron  and  steel  were  substituted  for  wood  in  shipbuilding, 
it  became  possible  to  increase  the  size  of  steamships;  at  the  same 
time  the  cost  of  forcing  them  through  the  water  was  lessened  by 
the  invention  of  better  furnaces,  boilers  and  engines.  These 
improvements  lowered  the  cost  of  steam  power  between  1870 
and  1900  about  40  per  cent.  Nearly  four  times  as  much  steam 
power  is  now  derived  from  a  pound  of  coal  as  in  1860.  With 
greater  carrying  capacity  and  much  less  expenditure  per  ton  for 
propelling  steamships,  their  owners  were  able  to  reduce  freight 
rates. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  commodities  that  once  were 
luxuries  are  now  found  in  nearly  every  humble  home  is  because 
they  are  distributed  so  cheaply  over  the  world  by  present 
methods  of  transportation. 

Transportation. — As  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  ocean,  most  commodities  carried  from  one  nation  to 
another  go  by  sea  routes.  Water  transportation  is  cheaper 
than  land  transport,  and  therefore  lakes,  rivers  and  canals  are 
important  trade  routes  in  most  countries,  though  they  lose  some 
of  their  importance  after  the  development  of  adequate  railroad 


UNCLE   SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 


119 


sj'stems.  The  leading  nations  spend  large  sums  in  the  improve- 
ment of  their  waterways.  In  our  country  the  Mississippi  and 
its  tributaries  supply  over  9,000  miles  of  navigation.  The 
Hudson  River,  connected  with  the  Great  Lakes  by  the  Erie 
Canal,  has  a  freight  tonnage  of  over  15,000,000  a  year.  Large 
ocean  vessels  ascend  the  Delaware  to  Philadelphia,  and  this 
river  annually  floats  about  14,000,000  tons  of  freight.  The  coal, 
lumber,  grain  and  other  heavy  commodities  carried  on  the  Ohio, 
give  it  a  freight  tonnage  of  14,000,000  a  year.     The   Mississippi 


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ThiB  map  shows  the  great  valae  of  Panama's  position  to  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

carries  about  as  much  freight  as  the  Ohio;  and  about  10,000,000 
passengers  are  borne  from  one  place  to  another  on  steamboats 
of  the  Mississippi  system  every  year. 

With  over  three  hundred  thousand  miles  of  railroad,  the 
United  States  has  a  greater  length  of  railways  than  the  whole  of 
Europe,  and  more  than  a  third  of  the  world's  mileage. 

Long  ocean  routes  afford  the  cheapest  freight  rates.  Freight 
charges  are  necessarily  somewhat  higher  on  large  lakes  than  on 
the  ocean,  because  lake  vessels  are  smaller  and  navigation  is 
restricted  by  small  connecting  rivers  and  canals.     The  actual 


120       UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

cost  of  transporting  freight  on  railroads  is  about  twice  as  much 
as  on  rivers  and  canals. 

Railroads. — In  the  United  States  railroads  are  only  about 
eighty  years  old,  but  this  country  has  a  mileage,  counting  double 
tracks  and  switching  tracks,  that  is  much  greater  than  the 
distance  from  the  earth  to  the  moon,  and  more  miles  of  track 
than  the  whole  world  possessed  in  1860.  Railroads  supply  most 
civilized  lands  with  rapid  and  comparatively  cheap  transporta- 
tion. 

The  most  important  railroads  are  those  extending  across  the 
continents,  east  and  west.  They  ^orm  parts  of  transportation 
lines  girdling  the  earth;  and  as  railroad  trains  move  much  more 
rapidly  than  steamships  and  the  speed  of  both  has  been  much 
accelerated  by  improved  machinery,  the  time  required  to  travel 
around  the  earth  has  been  greatly  reduced  in  recent  years. 

In  1912  the  aggregate  length  of  railroad  track  in  the  United 
States  was  359,000  miles;  over  65,000  locomotives  were  required 
to  haul  the  passenger  and  freight  trains  and  do  the  switching; 
there  were  over  40,000  passenger  cars  and  2,355,000  freight  cars, 
and  in  these  cars,  during  the  year,  1,019,658,605  passengers  and 
1,817,562,049  tons  of  freight  were  carried. 

In  parts  of  Africa  freight  is  still  carried  on  the  backs  of  men, 
and  there  are  other  regions  where  ox-teams  or  pack-mules  are 
the  only  means  of  freight  carriage.  Such  transportation  is  very 
expensive.  The  Germans  say  that  the  cost  of  freightage  in 
Africa  by  ox  wagon  is  twenty  times  as  much  as  on  tJie  Prussian 
railroads;  and  that  the  cost  of  transport  on  the  backs  of  men  is 
forty  times  as  much. 

We  have  long  known  of  a  cheap  way  of  moving  fluid  com- 
modities. Water,  petroleum  oil,  and  illuminating  gas  are  con- 
veyed long  distances  in  iron  pipes.     If  we  did  not  have  this  cheap 


UNCLE   SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    IILSTORY        121 

method  of  distributing  water,  it  could  not  be  supplied  to  us  at 
such  small  cost. 

It  is  quite  recently  that  the  wonderful  properties  of  electricity 
and  the  methods  of  best  utilizing  them  were  discovered.  But 
to-day,  with  the  aid  of  hundreds  o'  thousands  of  miles  of  electric 
wire,  men  in  most  parts  of  the  world  transact  business  with  one 
another  much  as  though  they  lived  in  the  same  town;  and  the 
postal  service,  a  cheaper  and  slower  means  of  communication, 
now  extends  into  the  heart  of  Africa  and  other  regions  of  which 
we  had  never  heard  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago. 

Transportations  in  Cities  and  Large  Towns. — ^The 
enormous  growth  of  cities  in  area  and  population  has  revolu- 
tionized their  means  of  transportation  because  the  old  omnibus 
and  horse  car  are  too  slow  and  in  all  respects  inadequate  to  the 
present  demands  of  business  men.  Great  improvements  have 
been  introduced,  especially  in  the  United  States,  where  the  ap- 
plication of  electricity  (overhead,  underground  and  third-rail 
systems)  has  practically  done  away  with  other  forms  of  traction. 
In  1890  the  mileage  of  the  electric  lines  in  the  United  States  was 
1,262;  in  1910  it  had  risen  to  40,088  miles;  while  there  was  a  great 
decrease  in  the  length  of  lines  operated  by  other  forms  of  power. 
In  1911  thqre  were  in  this  country  41,028  miles  of  street  and 
elevated  car  routes  that  were  operated  by  electricity. 

But  surface  street-car  routes  are  very  limited  in  spe-ed,  for 
rapid  transit  is  impossible  in  crowded  thoroughfares.  Two 
hours  or  more  are  required  by  the  ordinary  trolley  lines  of  New 
York  to  reach  some  parts  of  the  city  boundary  from  the  great 
business  district  at  the  south  end  of  Manhattan  Island.  Busi- 
ness men  cannot  afford  this  loss  of  time,  and  so  systems  of  ele- 
vated and  underground  roads,  with  electricity  for  motive  power, 
are  now  in  operation  in  New  York  and  Boston,  elevated  roads 
in  Chicago,  and  plans  have  been  made  for  the  large  extension 


122        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

of  these  rapid  transit  roads.  The  New  York  Subway  Railroad, 
the  largest  system  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  was  opened  on 
October  27, 1904.  The  part  of  this  system  between  the  Brooklyn 
Bridge  and  96th  Street  has  four  tracks,  on  which  express  trains 
run  at  the  rate  of  25  miles  an  hour;  and  the  local  trains,  stopping 
at  every  station,  make  from  14  to  18  miles  an  hour.  The  length 
of  the  underground  railway  system  in  New  York  is  26.3  miles. 
It  has  85.2  miles  of  track.  London  and  Paris  also  have  large 
systems  of  underground  rapid-transit  roads. 

Electric  Roads  between  Cities  and  Towns. — A  new  de- 
velopment in  the  United  States  is  electric  railroads,  called  Inter- 
urban  lines,  extending  from  the  cities  through  many  towns,  and 
with  numerous  stations  in  the  purely  farming  districts.  The 
cars  run  at  high  speed,  and  some  of  the  trains  in  Ohio  are  now 
provided  with  sleeping  cars  for  the  long-distance  routes.  There 
were  in  1905  about  8,000  miles  of  these  roads,  and  Ohio,  Michi- 
gan, Indiana  and  Illinois  have  the  most  extensive  and  efficient 
high-speed  rural  railroads  in  the  country.  Their  mileage  now 
exceeds  41,000  miles.  These  country  electric  systems  are  little 
developed,  as  yet,  west  of  the  Mississippi,  owing  to  the  lesser 
density  of  population  in  that  section.  The  rural  trolley  service 
is  being  rapidly  introduced  in  parts  of  New  England,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania  and  all  the  central  States.  The  trolley  freight  car 
is  also  coming  into  use,  to  the  advantage  of  the  farmers,  whose 
means  of  reaching  markets  are  thus  greatly  increased.  As  the 
cost  of  operation  is  small,  these  roads  compete  successfully  with 
the  steam  lines,  and  the  development  of  this  system  of  trans- 
portation, it  is  believed,  will  be  very  large.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  electrification  of  the  railroad  lines  is  also  progressing. 

Automobiles. — In  recent  years  gasoline,  steam  and  elec- 
tricity applied  to  the  propulsion  of  vehicles  on  streets  and  roads 
have  developed,  on  a  very  large  scale,  a  new  means  of  trans- 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        l'-23 

portation.  Vehicles  thus  driven  are  called  automobiles,  and 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  them  are  now  in  use  in  the  leading 
countries.  They  are  used  not  only  as  pleasure  and  touring 
carriages,  but  also  for  freight  hauling,  and  to  some  extent  they 
are  taking  the  place  in  cities  of  ordinary  freight  trucks.  Auto- 
mobile roads  have  been  built  in  some  newly  developing  coun- 
tries in  advance  of  the  construction  of  railroads.  One  of  them  in 
Madagascar  extended  before  the  construction  of  the  railway 
from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  capital,  Tananarivo,  about  150 
miles  in  the  interior,  and  automobiles  are  daily  carrying  freight 
and  passengers.  Two  automobile  freight  roads,  one  300  and 
another  500  miles  long,  exist  in  the  Belgian  Congo.  The  great 
usefulness  of  automobiles  has  been  proven,  and  vast  capital  i« 
now  invested   in   their   manufacture. 

Submarine  Boats. — These  boats  as  yet  are  used  only  as 
torpedo  boats,  their  special  advantage  being  that  they  can 
approach  an  enemy's  ship  under  water  without  being  discovered, 
and  launch  a  torpedo  at  short  range.  France  has  built  more  of 
them  than  any  other  nation,  but  they  are  now  a  feat  ure  of  all  navies. 
The  boats  are  submerged  by  admitting  water  to  the  ballast 
tanks  or  by  using  inclined  rudders.  Both  methods  are  employed 
in  some  of  the  boats.  This  class  of  vessels  has  not  yet  reached 
the  high  mark  desired  in  point  of  safety,  speed  and  habitability. 

Navigating  the  Air. — In  1766  Henry  Cavendish  of  England 
discovered  the  remarkable  lightness  of  hydrogen  gas.  It  was 
found  to  be  so  much  lighter  than  air  that  bags  filled  with  it 
would  rise  far  above  the  earth  and  float  in  the  atmosphere. 
This  was  the  germ  of  the  balloon.  Balloons  have  been  of  little 
practical  importance  except  for  military  reconnoissance  (captive 
balloons),  and  in  the  case  of  besieged  cities  which  have  sometimes 
used  balloons  to  communicate  with  the  outer  world.  In  recent 
years   attempts   have   been    made    to    use   them    as    passenger 


124        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

carriers.  Dirigible  balloon  lines  exist  between  some  large 
German  cities.  A  balloon  simply  drifts  with  the  air  currents, 
and  it  is  not  natural  for  man  to  be  long  content  with  devices 
that  he  cannot  control;  so  for  years  many  able  men  have  been 
trying  to  perfect  air-ships  which  they  may  steer  in  any  direction 
and  even  propel  against  the  wind. 

Great  progress  has  been  made  in  these  studies,  and  it  is  to-day 
the  belief  of  the  most  conservative  physicists  that  aerial  naviga- 
tion will  be  practically  accomplished.  The  investigators  are 
divided  into  two  classes.  One  seeks  to  devise  means  for  navigat- 
ing the  air  as  birds  do,  which  gain  support  and  propulsion  solely 
from  mechanical  and  muscular  energy;  the  other  relies  for  sup- 
port more  or  less  upon  the  buoyancy  of  hydrogen  gas,  while 
securing  propulsion  by  means  of  propellers.  All  are  interested 
in  motors,  whether  the  air-ship  moves  with  or  without  the  sup- 
port of  hydrogen.  All  are  concerned  with  methods  of  manage- 
ment and  with  the  adoption  of  means  for  directing  the  move- 
ments of  an  air-ship  through  the  air. 

Air-ships  are  now  steered  in  any  direction  and  propelled 
against  the  wind;  but  there  are  still  problems  to  be  solved  to 
make  air  navigation  useful,  safe  and  not  too  costly.  One  of  the 
highest  flights  on  record  was  that  of  airman  Garros  at  Houlgate 
on  September  6, 1912,  when  his  airship  attained  a  height  of  16,405 
feet.  These  problems  are  now  receiving  the  closest  attention, 
and  when  they  are  solved,  the  air  will  become  a  great  navigable 
highway  opened  for  the  nations. 

Pneumatic  Tubes. — Propelled  by  air  pressure,  packages  of 
mail,  parcels  and  other  articles  are  now  transported  very  quickly 
through  tubes.  The  first  extensive  application  of  this  method 
of  transportation  was  made  in  Berlin  in  1865;  to-day  Berlin  has 
over  thirty  miles  of  these  tubes  in  use,  and  the  speed  of  the 
"trains"  of  articles  that  are  shot  through  the  tubes  every  fifteen 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL  AND   WORLD    HISTORY        125 

minutes  is  from  15  to  23  miles  an  hour.  All  the  leading  British 
and  other  European  cities  use  this  time-saving  appliance.  The 
employment  of  the  pneumatic  tube  for  mail  and  small  packages 
in  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  many  other  American  cities  is 
constantly  increasing. 

The  Telegraph. — The  electric  telegraph  has  been  used  in 
business  for  the  quick  transmission  of  communications  only 
since  1846,  about  twenty  years  after  the  introduction  of  steam 
railroads.  As  the  telegraph  is  far  less  costly  than  railroad 
building,  it  has  spread  all  over  the  world  with  much  greater 
rapidity.  It  has  also  been  laid  along  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
from  continent  to  continent,  in  the  form  of  cable,  and  thus  binds 
all  parts  of  the  world  together.  Fourteen  ocean  cables  now 
connect  the  United  States  with  Europe.  Many  other  cables 
cross  the  Atlantic,  but  it  is  only  recently  that  cables  have  been 
extended  across  the  Pacific  between  America,  Asia  and  Australia. 
One  of  the  two  Pacific  lines  extends  from  Vancouver,  B.  C,  by 
way  of  Fanning,  Fiji  and  Norfolk  Islands  to  New  Zealand  and 
AustraKa.  The  United  States  line  crosses  the  Pacific  from  San 
Francisco  through  Honolulu,  IVIidway  Island,  Guam,  to  the 
Philippine  Islands,  touching  no  land  that  is  not  controlled  by 
our  country.  Altogether  407  different  cables  have  been  laid 
under  the  oceans.     Their  total  length  aggregates  226,591  miles. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  in  recent  years  to  wireless  teleg- 
raphy, various  systems  of  which  are  in  use.  They  are  of  much 
value  in  communicating  between  ships  at  sea  and  between  ships 
and  the  shore.  Our  government  maintains  wireless  telegraph 
stations  at  various  points  along  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  sea- 
boards. The  ocean  cable  between  Seattle  and  ^'aldez,  Alaska, 
is  joined  with  St.  Michael  by  land  lines,  and  St.  Michael  and  the 
great  Nome  mining  center  are  connected  by  wireless  telegraphy 
across  Norton  Sound,  107  miles.     Sometimes  5,000  words  are 


126       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY 

exchanged  in  an  afternoon  between  these  two  points.  Trans- 
Atlantic  wireless  telegrams  between  New  York  and  London  were 
first  sent  in  1911.  Wireless  communications  are  now  regularly 
sent  clear  across  the  Atlantic  and  far  out  in  the  Pacific  ocean. 
The  Federal  Telegraph  Company  owns  a  commercial  system 
between  San  Francisco  and  Honolulu.  Wireless  telegraphing 
promises  to  be  one  of  the  very  important  developments  of  the 
next  decade  for  cheap  and  rapid  intercommunication  between 
nations. 

The  Telephone. — In  recent  years  the  telephone  has  been 
developed  to  a  high  state  of  perfection.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  means  of  direct,  quick  and  perfect  communication 
between  individuals.  It  is  divided  into  two  kinds  of  service; 
long-distance  and  local.  The  long-distance  service  is  used  to  a 
large  extent  between  many  people  in  various  cities  for  the  trans- 
action of  important  business,  conversations  being  held  between 
cities  fully  1,500  miles  apart,  instantly  transacting  business, 
when  the  old  methods  of  letters  or  travelling  would  require  either 
much  more  time  or  long  trips  and  large  comparative  expense. 
Millions  of  telephones  are  in  use  in  the  United  States  in  what  is 
termed  local  service  in  cities  and  towns,  and  are  connected  with 
the  entire  surrounding  country.  They  have  become  so  much  a 
part  of  every-day  life  that  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  for  the 
ordinary  course  of  business  to  be  conducted  without  them,  and 
to  be  deprived  of  the  use  of  the  telephone  for  a  single  day  would 
entirely  disorganize  the  routine  of  business  and  social  relations 
as  they  are  conducted  to-day.  The  telephone  has  been  a  bless- 
ing to  those  living  in  country  districts  several  miles  from  smaller 
towns.  Small  settlements  and  plantations  in  distant  islands, 
widely  separated  mining  districts  of  Alaska  and  other  isolated 
countries,  stock  farm  and  ranches  in  the  unsettled  parts  of  Africa 
and  South  America  are  now  connected  by  telephone  lines.     They 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        127 

are  used  by  armies  in  the  field  to  keep  in  communication  and 
advised  of  different  movements.  They  are  also  used  to  report 
observations  in  connection  with  balloons  from  high  altitudes. 
Progress  is  also  being  made  in  wireless  telephones.  The  general 
service  of  the  telephone  to  humanity  places  it  as  one  of  the  most 
convenient  and  useful  of  all  recent  scientific  developments. 


Mathematical  Geography 

Mathematical  geography  treats  of  the  form  and  size  of  tne 
earth,  its  dimensions  and  the  methods  of  ascertaining  the  posi- 
tion of  places  on  its  surface. 

The  following  pages  will  give  many  features  showing  the 
helpfulness  of  our  Panama  Canal  Flat-Globe  in  the  study  of 
geography.  In  the  first  place,  a  few  definitions  and  facts  of 
Mathematical  Geography  will  simplify  the  study. 

The  Cardinal  Points. — If  we  hang  our  Globe  on  the  wall, 
or  lay  it  before  us,  with  the  North  Pole  upward,  the  right  hand 
on  the  chart  will,  of  course,  represent  the  east  and  the  left  hand 
the  west,  the  North  Pole  the  North,  and  the  South  Pole  the 
south.     These  are  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass. 

The  Antipodes. — A  straight  line  from  New  York  City 
through  the  center  of  the  earth  to  the  other  side  of  the  Globe 
would  emerge  in  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  southwest  of  Australia. 
The  point  of  emergence  would  be  the  Antipodes  of  New  York. 
The  line  would  form  a  true  diameter.  Thus  the  North  Pole  is 
exactly  antipodal  to  the  South  Pole.  Antipodes  Island,  to  the 
southeast  of  New  Zealand,  is  so  called  because  it  is  approxi- 
mately antipodal  to  Great  Britain.  Any  two  places  having  this 
relation  to  each  other  are  exactly  180  degrees  of  longitude  apart; 
and  one  of  them  is  just  as  many  degrees  of  latitude  to  the  north 
of  the  equator  as  the  other  is  to  the  south  of  it. 

The  Flat-Globe  shows  us  that  Philadelphia  is  in  40°  north 
latitude.  Its  antipodes,  therefore,  must  be  in  40°  south  latitude. 
This  city  is  also  in  about  75°  west  longitude,  and  as  it  is  separated 
from  its  antipodes  by  180  degrees  of  longitude,  we  find  that  the 
antipodes  of  Philadelphia  is  approximately  in  105°  east  longitude. 
Find  its  position  from  this  explanation  on  the  Panama  Canal 
Flat-Globe. 

128 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        129 

The  Poles. — It  is  only  within  a  few  hundred  years  that  we 
have  accepted  the  fact  that  the  earth  is  nearly  spherical,  and  that 
it  revolves  around  the  sun  and  rotates  on  its  axis.  As  the  earth 
is  spherical,  there  must  be  two  points  on  its  surface  which  re- 
main at  rest  as  it  rotates.  We  call  these  points  the  North  Pole 
and  the  South  Pole.  The  imaginary  line  through  the  center  of 
the  earth  uniting  them  is  called  the  earth's  axis. 

The  Equator. — The  circle  that  surrounds  the  earth  at  equal 
distance  from  the  Poles  is  called  the  Equator  (equalizer),  be- 
cause it  divides  the  earth  into  equal  hemispheres. 

Latitude  and  Longitude. — It  was  necessary  to  devise  some 
means  by  which  we  might  find  any  position  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Mathematicians  solved  the  problem  by  adopting  the 
expedient  of  Parallels  and  Meridians. 

Imaginary  circles  surrounding  the  earth  parallel  to  the  equator 
are  called  parallels  of  latitude.  The  latitude  of  a  point  is  its 
distance  from  the  equator,  north  or  south.  Thus,  Philadelphia 
is  in  about  40"  north  latitude,  or,  in  other  words,  it  stands  2,400 
geographical  miles  north  of  the  equator.  The  parallels  for  every 
10  degrees  of  latitude  are  printed  on  the  Panama  Canal  Flat  Globe. 

Meridians  are  imaginary  circles  that  pass  through  both  poles 
and  intersect  the  equator  and  all  parallels  at  right  angles.  We 
use  these  meridians  to  define  the  longitude  of  any  point — in 
other  words,  to  determine  its  distance  to  the  east  or  the  west  of 
what  is  known  as  the  prime  meridian,  and  which,  of  course, 
must  be  previously  agreed  upon.  Ptolemy,  early  in  the  Chris- 
tian era,  selected  Ferro,  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Canary  group, 
as  the  prime  meridian,  because  it  was  the  most  western  land  of 
which  he  had  any  knowledge.  It  was  accepted  by  all  geog- 
raphers for  a  long  time,  but  other  meridians  came  into  use  later, 
among  them  Greenwich,  Paris,  Pulkova  and  Washington. 
Most  nations  now  accept  Greenwich  as  the  prime  meridian. 


130       UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

When  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  place  are  given,  its  geo- 
graphical   position    is    accurately    defined. 

Great  and  Small  Circles. — On  a  terrestrial  globe,  the  circles 
of  latitude  are  all  parallel  to  the  equator,  and  this  is  the  reason 
why  they  are  called  parallels  of  latitude.  The  equator  is  a  Great 
Circle  of  the  earth.  The  parallels  to  the  north  and  south  of  the 
equator  are,  of  course,  smaller  circles,  and  grow  constantly 
smaller  as  their  distance  from  the  equator  increases.  They  are 
called  Small  Circles.  All  the  meridians  pass  through  the  poles 
and  are  all  equal  Great  Circles  of  the  sphere.  Fqr  the  measure- 
ment of  degrees  of  longitude,  however,  they  are  treated  as  half 
circles  extending  from  pole  to  pole.  On  the  Flat-Globe,  the 
earth  is  cut  on  20°  west  longitude  and  160°  east  longitude,  which 
divides  the  earth  into  the  eastern  and  western  hemispheres.  The 
equator  is  the  dividing  line  between  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres. 

Length  of  Degrees  of  Longitude. — All  our  globe  calcula- 
tions have  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  as  the  prime  meridian. 
Greenwich  is  a  parliamentary  borough  of  the  City  of  London  in 
Kent  County,  England,  on  the  Thames,  five  miles  southeast  of 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  It  is  noted  for  the  Royal  Observatory 
(built  in  1675).  The  observatory  is  in  latitude  51°  28'  38' 
north,  and  is  the  point  of  departure  through  which  the  prime 
meridian,  or  0,  passes  from  which  longitudes  are  measured. 
The  statute  mile  is  5,280  feet  long.  The  geographical  or 
nautical  mile  is  1-60  of  a  degree  of  latitude  at  the  equator,  and 
is  7,075  feet  long.     It  is  chiefly  used  by  navigators. 

The  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  the  equator  is  69.16-1 
miles,  while  at  the  poles  it  is  nothing.  This  is  because  all  degrees 
of  longitude  converge  at  the  poles,  as  is  seen  on  the  Panama 
Canal  Flat-Globe.  As  we  proceed  towards  the  poles  from  the 
equator,  the  length  of  the  degrees  of  longitude  constantly  lessens. 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY 


131 


The  following  table  illustrates  the  length  of  one  degree  of 
longitude  in  different  latitudes  from  the  equator  to  the  poles: 


LATITUDE  STAT.   MI. 


0  degrees  69.164 


1 

2 

3 

4 

a 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 


69.145 
69.122 
69.072 
68.998 
68.901 
68.785 
68.652 
68.496 
68.315 
68.117 
67.900 
67.661 
67.402 
67.121 
66.821 
66.499 
66.163 
65.798 
65.419 
65.014 
64.589 
64.156 


LATITUDE  STAT.  MI. 


23  degrees  63.695 


24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 


03.216 
62.718 
62.202 
61.666 
61.113 
60.537 
59.947 
59.333 
58.711 
58.065 
57.397 
56.714 
56.018 
55.308 
54.570 
53.819 
53.053 
52.269 
51.476 
50.660 
49.830 
48.982 


LATITUDE  STAT.  MI. 


46  degrees  48.124 


47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 


47.253 
46.363 
45.462 
44.545 
43.614 
42.670 
41.713 
40.743 
39.760 
38.765 
37.758 
36.740 
35.711 
34.669 
33.617 
32.555 
31.483 
30.402 
29.310 
28.210 
27.101 
25.985 


LATITUDE  STAT.  MI. 
69  degrees  24.860 


70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 


23.725 

22.584 

21.437 

20.284 

19.124 

17.957 

16.784 

15.608 

14.427 

13.240 

12.049 

10.854 

9.656 

8.456 

7.253 

6.048 

4.840 

3.631 

2.421 

1.211 

0.000 


In  computing  distance  from  one  point  to  another  on  the  earth's 
surface,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  some  allowances  where  the 
points  lie  north  and  south  of  each  other,  but  on  direct  parallels 
east  or  west  the  scale  in  the  table  above  gives  the  number  of 
miles  at  each  parallel. 

Change  of  Date  Line. — The  change  of  date  line  marks  the 
change  of  day  in  circumnavigating  the  earth  east  or  west.  By 
common  consent  of  the  leading  nations,  it  is  placed  in  the  Pacific, 
and  for  the  most  part  coincides  with  the  180th  meridian.  ^Yhen 
ships  "cross  the  line,"  they  add  a  day  to  their  calendar  if  they 
are  going  west,  and  subtract  a  day  if  they  are  going  east;  and 
the  date  line  is  placed  in  the  Pacific,  far  from  most  lands,  be- 
cause it  is  best  to  have  the  change  made  where  it  will  be  least 
inconvenient.     Because  we  have  the  western  date,  the  date  line 


132        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

diverges  from  the  180th  meridian  in  the  Aleutian  Archipelago, 
so  as  to  give  all  our  Aleutian  islands  the  western  day.  At  about 
15"  North  of  the  equator  the  line  extends  to  the  east  so  as  to 
include  Samoa  and  Fiji  as  well  as  New  Zealand  in  the  Asiatic 
group.  It  is  then  prolonged  diagonally  to  join  the  180th  merid- 
ian again.  United  States  and  French  possessions  are  thus  left 
east  of  the  line. 

SOME  FEATURES  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 
FLAT-GLOBE 

Highways  of  the  Seas. — You  will  notice  on  our  Flat-Globe 
that  the  principal  ocean  highways  are  given,  and  the  distance  in 
miles  between  ports  is  shown.  Thus,  from  San  Francisco  to 
Honolulu  is  2,100  miles,  from  Honolulu  to  Manila,  Philippine 
Islands,  is  4,700  miles;  by  following  these  lines  from  one  hemi- 
sphere to  the  other,  we  get  a  perfect  globe  effect,  as  you  will  notice 
the  same  degree  of  latitude  in  one  hemisphere  corresponds  to  the 
same  degree  of  latitude  in  the  other,  which  brings  all  lines  of 
latitude  and  longitude  correctly  in  place. 

To  show  how  vessels  sail  around  the  world,  follow  the  line 
from  New  York  City  across  the  Atlantic,  pass  the  Azores  Islands 
to  Gibraltar,  through  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  Suez  Canal,  Red 
Sea,  Gulf  of  Aden,  across  the  Arabian  Sea  to  Ceylon,  then 
through  the  Indian  Ocean  to  Australia,  on  to  Melbourne  and 
New  Zealand,  then  across  the  South  Pacific 'Ocean  through  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  thence  northward  through  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean  to  New  York  City. 

The  Zones  are  situated  within  fixed  circles  on  each  hemi- 
sphere, and  they  are  imaginary  belts,  or  girdles,  named  as  follows: 
Torrid,  meaning  hot;  Frigid,  meaning  cold  or  frozen;  Temper- 
ate, meaning  moderate.  There  are  five  in  all.  The  Torrid 
Zone  is  situated  between  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  which  is  a 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        133 

dotted  line  23^  degrees  south  of  the  equator,  and  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer,  which  is  a  dotted  line  23|  degrees  north  of  the  equator. 
The  Polar  Circles  are  illustrated  by  dotted  lines  23§  degrees 
from  the  Poles.  The  northern  is  called  the  Arctic  Circle,  and 
the  southern  is  called  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Each  circle  of  lati- 
tude on  the  Globe  represents  360  degrees  of  longitude,  varying 
in  length. 

From  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  north  to  the  Arctic  Circle  is  the 
North  Temperate  Zone.  From  the  Arctic  Circle  to  the  North 
Pole  is  the  North  Frigid  Zone. 

From  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  south  latitude,  to  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle,  is  the  South  Temperate  Zone,  and  from  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle  south  to  the  South  Pole  is  the  South  Frigid  Zone. 
Small  dotted  lines  illustrate  the  limits  of  ordinary  navigation 
toward  the  Poles,  and  the  limits  of  the  heavy  drift  ice,  also  the 
coral  reefs  and  islands.  The  various  routes  of  hurricanes,  trade 
winds,  and  sea  currents,  showing  their  course,  are  distinctly 
traced. 

The  youngest  student  of  geography  may  learn  quickly  to  use 
this  Flat-Globe  in  an  intelligent  manner. 

By  being  placed  together,  back  to  back,  the  hemispheres  make 
two  pole  points,  one  for  the  north  and  one  for  the  south;  they 
are  joined  correctly  and  give  the  globe  effect,  and  are  more 
easily  understood  by  the  child  or  any  person  studying  from  it 
than  from  a  solid  ball  globe. 

Time. — Time  is  measured  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis.  The  difference  of  longitude  between  any  two  places  on 
the  earth's  surface  is  simply  the  difference  of  local  times  at  the 
two  places  at  the  same  instant.  We  are  thus  able  to  convert 
differences  of  time  into  differences  of  longitude,  or  vice  versa. 
When  it  is  noon  on  the  prime  meridian  at  Greenwich,  for  example, 
it  is  earlier  for  places  to  the  west  of  Greenwich  by  the  amount  of 


134       UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY 

one  hour  for  every  15  degrees  of  west  longitude;  and,  similarly, 
it  is  later  for  all  places  to  the  east  of  Greenwich. 

Thus  the  surface  of  the  earth  may  be  divided  into  spaces  by 
meridians  fifteen  degrees  apart,  beginning  with  Greenwich. 
These  meridians  may  be  called  hour-circles.  The  first  three  of 
them  west  of  Greenwich  are  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  fourth  (60 
degrees)  passes  through  Labrador  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
the  fifth  (75  degrees)  is  near  Philadelphia,  the  sixth  (90  degrees) 
is  near  St.  Louis,  the  seventh  (105  degrees)  is  near  Denver,  and 
the  eighth  (120  degrees)  is  the  west  boundary  of  Nevada. 

From  these  meridians,  or  hour-circles,  "standard"  railroad 
time  in  North  America  is  now  taken,  each  company  adopting 
the  time  of  the  hour-circle  nearest  the  greater  portion  of  its  road. 
The  names  applied  to  these  standards  are  International  (on  the 
60th  degree).  Eastern  (on  the  75th  degree).  Central  (on  the  90th 
degree),  Mountain^  (on  the  105th  degree)  Pacific  (on  the  120th 
degree) . 

All  places  on  the  same  meridian  have  exactly  the  same  time. 
On  the  meridian  of  75"  west  near  Philadelphia,  for  example,  it  is 
noon  at  the  same  instant  from  the  north  to  the  south  pole. 

The  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  and  their  subdivisions 
are  thus  designated:  A  degree  (") ;  a  minute,  or  the  sixtieth  part 
of  a  degree  (');  a  second,  or  the  sixtieth  part  of  a  minute  (')• 

TABLES  SHOWING  RELATIONSHIP  OF  LONGITUDE  TO  TIME 

360°  of  longitude  make  a  difference  of  24  hours  in  time. 
15°  "  "  "  1  hour  in  time. 

1^  *'  makes  "  4  minutes  in  time. 

1'  "  "  "  4  seconds  in  time. 

1"  "  "  "  1-15  second  in  time. 

60"—  1'  60  seconds  =  1  minute. 

60*^=  1°  60  minutes  =  1  hour. 

30°=  1  S.  24  hours  =  1  day. 

360°=  1  Cir.  365  d.,  5  h.,  48  m",  49  s.  =1  solar  year 

Time  Around  the  World. —  You  will  notice  at  the  Equator 
on  the  Flat-Globe  there  are  shown  twenty-four  clock  faces,  one 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  135 

for  every  hour  of  the  day.  When  it  is  twelve  o'clock,  noon  at 
Greenwich,  or  degree  "0",  at  fifteen  degrees  east  of  that  point 
it  is  one  o'clock  p.m.,  and  at  fifteen  degrees  west,  it  is  eleven 
o'clock  a.m.,  and  for  every  additional  fifteen  degrees  of  distance, 
east  or  west  of  Greenwich,  to  the  180th  parallel,  or  date  line, 
where  it  is  midnight,  there  is  a  difference  of  one  hour  in  time. 
East  of  Greenwich  it  is  p.m.,  west  of  Greenwich  it  is  a.  m.  For 
example:  to  find  the  time  of  day  at  any  point,  say,  from  St. 
Louis,  Missouri.  If  it  is  twelve  o'clock,  noon,  at  St.  Louis,  bear 
in  mind  that  it  is  later  to  the  right  hand,  or  east,  and  earlier  to 
the  left  hand,  or  west.  You  can  readily  reckon  the  time  from 
any  point,  by  obtaining  the  parallel  of  longitude,  and  following 
your  dials  therefrom,  allowing  one  hour  for  each  fifteen  degrees. 
Divisions  of  Time. — The  apparent  movement  of  the  sun  and 
the  movement  of  the  moon  have  been  taken  in  all  ages  and  in  all 
countries  as  the  measure  of  time.  The  diurnal  motion  of  the 
earth  constitutes  the  measure  of  our  day,  the  earth's  revolution 
on  her  orbit  the  measure  of  our  year,  and  the  periodic  return 
of  the  moon  is  the  basis  of  our  month. 

The  true  solar  year  contains  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes 
and  49  seconds,  but  as  the  common  or  civil  year  consists  of  only 
365  days,  the  Solar  year  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  day  longer  than 
the  civil  year,  and  therefor,  as  this  year  always  contains  365 
days,  there  would  be  an  error  of  a  day  in  the  course  of  every 
four  years.  In  order  to  correct  that  error,  Julius  Caesar  enacted 
that  every  fourth  year  should  consist  of  366  days,  this  being 
called  leap  year,  and  the  additional  day  to  be  added  in  the  month 
of  February,  thereby  making  that  month  contain  twenty-nine 
days  once  in  four  years.  Hence  this  mode  of  reckoning  is  called 
the  "Julian  Calendar." 

If  the  solar  year  had  consisted  of  365  days,  6  hours,  exactly, 
there  would  have  been  no  need  of  making  further  correction; 


136       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

but  it  is  over  eleven  minutes  too  short,  and  in  consequence  the 
Juhan  Calendar  introduced  an  error  of  forty-four  minutes  every 
four  years,  or  about  a  whole  day  in  one  hundred  and  thirty 
years,  which  in  the  course  of  centuries  became  considerable, 
and  so  it  happened  that  in  1577  the  Vernal  Equinox  occurred  on 
the  10th  of  March  instead  of  the  21st.  Pope  Gregory,  in  the 
year  1582,  corrected  the  calendar  in  the  following  manner:  The 
5th  of  October  should  be  called  the  15th  to  correct  the  error 
which  had  occurred  from  the  time  of  Caesar,  and  to  prevent  its 
happening  again,  he  decreed  that  every  fourth  year  should  be 
leap  year,  as  in  the  Julian  Calendar,  except  that  every  hundredth 
year  for  three  consecutive  centuries  should  be  common  years, 
and  the  fourth  hundredth  should  be  leap  year.  Thus  1700, 
1800,  and  1900  are  common  years,  and  2000  is  a  leap  year.  By 
this  mode  of  reckoning,  the  error  in  four  hundred  years  would 
not  exceed  one  day.  This  calendar,  the  Gregorian,  was  not 
adopted  in  Great  Britain  till  1752.  It  is  called  the  New  Style, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  Julian  Calendar,  which  is  called  the 
Old  Style. 

Equation  of  Time. — Owing  to  certain  causes,  among  them 
the  irregidarity  of  the  sun's  apparent  motion  among  the  stars, 
we  find  that  the  interval  between  two  successive  noons  is  not 
always  the  same,  and  a  clock  that  keeps  true  time  will  not, 
therefore,  always  correspond  with  the  sun;  for  e;xample,  if  it  be 
twelve  o'clock  m.  by  a  clock  keeping  true  time,  when  the  sun  is 
exactly  on  the  meridian,  it  will  not  be  exactly  noon  by  the  clock 
to-morrow  when  the  sun  reaches  the  same  meridian.  The  time 
by  the  clock  will  be  either  a  little  before  or  behind  that  of  the 
sun,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  This  difference  be- 
tween the  clock  and  the  sun  is  called  the  Equation  of  Time. 
You  will  find  in  almost  every  almanac,  for  each  month,  reference 
for  this  difference  in  time  for  each  day  in  the  year.     Thus  you 


UNCLE   SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        137 

can  always  tell  how  much  before  or  after  solar  time  your  watch 
or  clock  is. 

Length  of  Days  at  Various  Latitudes. —  The  following 
table  illustrates  the  length  of  the  longest  days  in  the  various 
latitudes  from  the  equator: 

Latitude  at     0  degrees,  the   longest  day  is  12    hours. 


30 
49 
58 
63 
65 
66 
67 
69 
90 


14 
16 
18 
20 

22 
24 

1  month. 

2  months. 
6   " 


To  Find  the  Latitudes  and  Longitudes  of  Places. — To 

find  the  latitude  of  any  place,  find  the  parallel  nearest  to  the 
place,  and  follow  it  to  the  right  or  left  margin  of  the  map,  and 
approximate  distance  above  or  below  the  line,  as  the  Panama 
Flat-Globe  shows  a  line  at  every  ten  degrees;  remember  that  if 
north  of  the  eciuator,  it  is  in  north  latitude,  and  if  south  of  the 
equator,  it  is  in  south  latitude. 

To  find  the  longitude  of  any  place,  start  from  the  equator  on  a 
parallel  nearest  to  that  point  and  approximate  the  degrees  in 
longitude  from  the  figures  that  show  at  a  distance  of  five  degrees 
on  the  equator,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  places  to  the  right  or 
east  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  to  the  180th  degree  or  date 
line  are  in  east  longitude  and  those  to  the  left  of  Greenwich  to 
the  180th  degree  or  date  line  are  in  west  longitude. 

Here  are  a  number  of  examples  of  the  kind  of  questions  that 
may  be  answered  by  reference  to  the  Flat-Globe : 

Example — Some  shipwrecked  sailors  who  are  out  of  sight  of  land  find  by  the  sun  that 
they  are  in  40  degrees  north  latitude  and  30  degrees  west  longitude.  What  is  their  place 
on  the  globe,  what  land  is  nearest  them,  and  in  what  direction  mu.st  they  sail  to  reach  it.^ 

Answer — The  Island  of  Flores,  almost  due  south. 

Example — .\nother  company  are  in  30  degrees  south  latitude  and  110  degrees  west  longi- 
tude.   What  land  is  nearest  them,  and  in  what  direction  must  they  sail  to  reach  it.^ 

.\nswer — Easter  Island,  or  almost  due  north. 

Example — What  hour  is  it  at  London  when  it  is  noon  at  St.  Louis? 

Answer — London  being  90  degrees  east  of  St.  Louis,  makes  it  six  hours  later  there. 
Hence  it  is  6  p.  m.  at  London. 


138        UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

What  hour  is  it  at  Chicago  when  it  is  9  a.  m.  at  New  York? 

Example — To  find  tlie  difference  in  longitude  between  any  two  places  whose  difference 
in  time  is  known: 

Reckon  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude  for  every  hour  of  time  and  one  degree  for  every  four 
minutes.  If  the  time  is  later  the  longitude  is  east,  and  if  earlier  it  is  west.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  sailors  find  where  they  are  on  the  ocean. 

Example — Some  sailors  at  noon  on  the  21st  of  December  saw  the  sun  to  the  south  and 
only  ten  degrees  above  the  horizon.     In  what  latitude  were  they? 

Answer — 50°  30'  north  latitude. 

Example — By  their  chronometer,  which  keeps  Greenwich  time,  it  is  three  o'clock 
p.  m.;  in  what  longitude  are  they  andwhere  are  they  on  the  globe? 

Answer — Longitude  45°  west  and  in  tlie  Atlantic  Ocean,  3°  3',  or  2-13  miles  south  of 
Cape  Farewell  in  Greenland. 

Example — To  find  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  any  given  latitude: 

Measure  the  distance  between  any  two  meridians  at  the  given  latitude  with  a  rule  and 
ascertain  the  number  of  degrees  to  the  inch  this  occupies  at  the  equator.  Multiply  this 
number  of  equatorial  degrees  by  C9  1-6  and  you  have  the  number  of  miles  between  the  two 
meridians,  which,  divided  by  the  number  of  degrees  between  them,  will  give  you  the  number 
of  miles  in  one  degree. 

Example — To  find  how  fast  per  hour  the  people  at  any  given  place  are  carried  from  west 
to  east  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis: 

Find  the  number  of  miles  in  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude  at  the  latitude  of  the  given  place 
and  multiply  this  by  69  1-6,  which  will  give  the  distance  the  place  moves  per  hour. 

Example — How  far  does  a  point  on  the  earth  move  from  west  to  east  in  one  hour  at 
latitude  30  north? 

Answer — The  distance  between  two  meridians  (fifteen  degrees)  at  latitude  30  degrees 
is  equal  to  thirteen  degrees  on  the  equator,  which,  multiplied  by  69  1-6  miles  in  each  degree, 
gives  899  miles  as  the  distance  traveled  in  one  hour. 

Example — To  find  the  antipodes  of  any  place: 

Ascertain  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  given  place,  and  on  the  meridian  exactly 
opposite  from  it  locate  a  place  the  same  distance  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  equator,  which 
will  be  the  antipodes  of  the  given  place. 

Approximate  Ocean  Distances. — A  knot  or  nautical  mile  is 
6,086  feet;  a  statute  or  English  land  mile  is  5,280  feet;  a  knot 
is  therefore  equal  to  about  one  and  fifteen  bne-hundredths 
statute  miles. 


New  York 

Sandy  Hook 

to 


Knots 


Alexandria 4,988 

Algiers 3,564 

Amsterdam 3,335 

Antwerp ■ 3,-2QS 

Azores 2.250 

Bermuda 691 

Bremen 3,484 

Cherbourg 3,027 

Christiania • .  3,425 

Copenhagen 3,800 

Dover 3,160 

Fastnet 2,800 

Genoa 4,060 

Gibraltar 3,200 

Glasgow 2,950 


New  York 
Sandy  Hook 
to 


Knots 


Hamburg 3,510 

Havre 3,094 

Liverpool 3,032 

Lizard 2,934 

London 3,222 

Marseilles 3,900 

Milford  Haven 2,875 

Naples 4,140 

Newfoundland,  Banks  of 960 

Plymouth, 2,946 

Prawle  Point 2,959 

Queenstown,  Roche  Point 2,772 

Rotterdam ■ 3,290 

Scilly,  Bishop  Rock 2,886 

Southampton 3,100 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY        139 

Knots. 

New  York  to  Sandy  Hook " 18 

Sandy  Hook  to  Sandy  Hook  Liphtship 8 

Sandy  Hook  Lightship  to  Fire  Island 30 

Fire  Island  to  Shinnecock 35 

Shinnecock  to  Nantucket  Lightship 122 

Haltimore  to  Hamburg  (Cuxhaven) 3,813 

Baltimore  to  Southampton 3,405 

Baltimore  to  Queenstown  (Roche  Point) 3,118 

Philadelphia  to  Hamburg  (Cuxhaven) 3.633 

Philadelphia  to  Southampton 3,223 

Philadelphia   to  Quecnstown  (Roche  Point) 2,950 

Boston  to  Hamburg  (Cuxhaven) 3,278 

Boston  to  Southampton 2.808 

Boston  to  Queenstonn   (Roche  Point) 2,581 

On  a  clear  day  two  steamers  approaching  each  other  on  paral- 
lel lines  at  20  knots  speed  will  pass  at  the  end  of  fifteen  minutes 
after  their  hulls  first  become  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  at  the 
end  of  another  fifteen  minutes  will  have  passed  out  of  sight 
astern. 

Depths  of  the  Oceans. — The  average  depth  of  the  oceans  is 
11,470  feet.  The  greatest  known  depth  is  32,114  feet.  The 
extent  and  depth  of  the  several  oceans  are  approximately 
as  follows: 

AREA  SQUARE  MILES  AVERAGE  DEPTH 

Pacific 68  million 12,780  feet. 

Atlantic 34  million 12,000  feet. 

Indian 28  million 10,980  feet. 

Antarctic ^. 6  million 6,000  feet. 

Arctic 6  million 5,100  feet. 

UNITED  STATES "PORTS  OF  ENTRY" 


Albany,  N.  Y., 
Atlanta,  Ga., 
Baltimore,  Md., 
Bath,  Me., 
Boston,  Mass., 
Bridgeport,  Conn., 
Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
Burlington,  Vt., 
Charleston,  S.  C, 
Chicago.  111.. 
Cincinnati,  O., 
Cleveland,  O., 
Columbus,  O., 
Denver,  Colo., 
Detroit,  Mich., 
Dubuque,  la., 
Duluth,  Minn., 
Enfield,  Conn., 


Evansville,  Ind., 
Galveston,  Tex., 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich., 
Hartford,  Conn., 
Indianapolis,  Ind., 
Jacksonville,  Fla., 
Kansas  City,  Mo., 
Key  West,  Fla., 
Lincoln,  Neb., 
Louisville,  Ky., 
Memphis,  Tenn., 
Middletown,  Conn., 
Milwaukee,  Wis., 
Minneapolis,  Minn., 
Mobile,  Ala., 
Nashville,  Tenn., 
Newark,  N.  .1., 
New  Haven,  Conn., 


New  Orleans,  La., 
Newport  News,  Va., 
New  York,  N.  Y., 
Norfolk,  Va., 
Oakland,  Cal., 
Omaha,  Neb., 
Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Pittsburg,  Pa.. 
Port  Huron,  Mich., 
Portland,  Me., 
Portland,  Ore., 
Pt.  Townsend,  Wash., 
Portsmouth,  X.  11. , 
Providence,  R.  I., 
Richmond,  Va., 
Rochester,  N.  Y., 
San  Diego,  Cal., 
Sandusky,  O., 


San  Francisco,  Cal., 
Savannah,  Ga., 
St.  Joseph,  Mo., 
St.  Louis,  Mo., 
St.  Paul,  Minn.. 
Sault  Ste.  Marie, 

Mich., 
San  Antonio,  Tex., 
Seattle,  Wash., 
Sioux  City,  la., 
Springfield,  Mass., 
Tacoma,  Wash., 
Tampa,  Fla., 
Toledo,  O., 
Washington,  D.  C, 
Wilmington,  Del., 
Wilmington,  N.  C. 


140        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

DISTANCES  IN  NAUTICAL  MILES 

SavefJ  from  New  York  via  the  Panama  Canal  on  Trade  Routes 

San  Francisco: 

Magellan 13,135 

Panama 5,262 

Saved 7,873 

Guayaquil: 

Magellan 10,215 

Panama 2,810 

Saved 7,405 

Callao: 

Magellan 9,613 

Panama 3,363 

Saved 6,250 

Iquique: 

Magellan 9,143 

Panama 4,004 

Saved 5,139 

Valparaiso: 

Magellan 8,380 

Panama 4,633 

Saved 3,747 

Honolulu: 

Magellan ■.  .  .  13,312 

Panama •  6,700 

Saved 6,612 

Manila: 

Suez 11,589 

*Panama 11,548 

Saved 41 

Yokohama: 

Suez 13,079 

*Panama 9,798 

Saved 3,281 

Hongkong: 

Suez 11,628 

*Panama : 11,383 

Saved 245 

Melbourne: 

Magellan 12,852 

Panama 10,030 

Saved 2,822 

*Via  San  Francisco  and  the  Great  Circle. 


UNCLE   SAM  S   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 
DISTANCES  AND  MAIL  TIME  FROM  NEW  YORK  CITY 


141 


BY  POSTAL   ROUTE   TO- 


Adelaide,  via  San  Francisco 

Alexandria,  ria  London 

Amsterdam, 
Antwerp,        " 

Athens,  "         " 

Bangkok,  Siam,  rio  San  Francisco. 

Batavia,  Java,  ria  London 

Berlin 

Bombay,  tria  London 

Bremen 

Calcutta,  via  London 

Cape  Town,  ria  London 

Constantinople 

Florence,  ria  London 

Glasgow 

Hamburg,  ria  London 

Hong  Kong,  via  San  Francisco. .  .  . 
Honolulu         "      "  "         .  .  .  . 

Liverpool 

London 

Madrid,  via  London 

Melbourne,  via  San  Francisco 

Mexico  City  (overland) 

Paris 

Rome,  via  London 

Rotterdam 

St.  Petersburg 

Shanghai,  ria  Vancouver 

Stockholm,  via  London 

Sydney,  ria  San  Francisco. . ' 

Vienna 

Yokohama,  ria  San  Francisco 


12,8^5 

31 

6,150 

10 

3.985 

7 

3,208 

7 

5,655 

10 

12,990 

43 

12,800 

32 

4,385 

6 

9,765 

22 

4,235 

6 

11.120 

29 

11.245 

2.5 

5,810 

10 

4.800 

9 

3,375 

8 

4,340 

8 

10.590 

27 

5,645 

12 

3,540 

7 

3,740 

6 

4,925 

9 

12.265 

30 

3.750 

5 

4,020 

7 

5,030 

9 

3.935 

8 

5.370 

9 

9,920 

25 

4,975 

10 

11,570 

31 

4,740 

8 

7,348 

20 

National  and  Political 
Geography 

Following  are  the  most  important  and  the  latest  facts  con- 
cerning the  various  countries  of  the  world: 

Abyssinia  (or  Ethiopia). — A  native  empire  (despotic)  in 
East  Africa,  between  4°  and  15°  north  latitude  and  35°  and  47° 
east  longitude.  A  rugged  plateau  mostly,  8,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  In  the  center  of  the  country  is  a  great  depres- 
sion, occupied  by  Lake  Tsana,  with  an  area  of  1  ,'200  miles,  which 
is  the  principal  source  of  the  Blue  Nile.  Population,  about 
7,000,000;  area,  about  250,000  square  miles.  The  late  em- 
peror, Menelik  II.,  claimed  his  descent  from  Menelik,  the  son  of 
Solomon  by  the  Queen  of  Sheba. 

The  chief  commercial  products  are  coffee,  wild  indigo,  cotton, 
sugar-cane  and  dates.  The  country  has  many  valuable  forest 
trees.  The  capital  is  Addis  Abeba;  population,  about  50,000. 
Other  towns— Harar,  35,000;  Ankober,  7,000;  Axum,  5,000; 
Gondar,  5,000, 

The  country  is  almost  exclusively  agricultural,  but  tillage  is 
very  inadequate.  The  higher  plateaus  are  adapted  for  Euro- 
pean cereals.  The  western  lowlands  are  hot  and  unhealthful. 
An  important  coffee-growing  country.  Industries  are  very  little 
developed.  Mules  and  donkeys  chiefly  used  for  transportation. 
The  French  railroad  from  Jibuti  extends  to  Harar  and  Addis 
Abeba.  Religion,  Christian  (Coptic).  Exports  (1911)— $2,724- 
965,  coffee,  dates,  ivory,  gums,  skins;  imports  estimated,  $2,500- 
000,  cotton  goods,  cutlery,  etc. 

Afghanistan. — A  despotic  emirate  in  south-central  Asia; 
lies  between  Persia  and  India.  Area,  250,000  square  miles; 
population,  4,500,000;  Kabul,  the  capital,  has  140,000  popula- 
tion; Kandahar,  40,000;  Herat,  12,000;  Ghazni,  5,000.     It  is 

143 


UNCLE   SAM  S   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        143 

• 

one  of  the  most  barren  countries  in  the  world.  Sand,  bare  rocks, 
sterile  hills,  and  vast  snow-capped  mountains  are  the  main  fea- 
tures of  this  stern,  inhospitable  country.  In  summer  it  is  hot 
everywhere.  The  temperature  depends  upon  the  elevation  and 
not  upon  the  latitude.  Stony,  treeless  slopes,  parched  soil,  and 
whirling  sand  increase  the  heat  and  dryness  of  the  scorching  air. 
Winter  brings  frost,  snow  and  blustering  storms,  and  is  full  of 
surprises.  One  moment  a  traveler  may  be  in  the  sun's  glare  and 
the  next  he  is  pierced  by  the  icy  wind.  The  products  are  wheat, 
barley,  rice,  millet  and  Indian  corn.  Assafoetida  in  large  quan- 
tities is  exported  from  this  country  to  India.  Fi-uits,such  as  figs, 
pomegranates  and  almonds,  are  produced  in  large  quantities. 
The  Bactrian  camel,  sheep  and  goats  are  reared.  The  industries 
are  excellent  felts  and  carpets  of  wool  and  hair,  and  some  silk 
is  produced.  Race,  Afghan — exclusive  and  unfriendly  to  foreign- 
ers. Religion,  Mohammedan.  There  is  small  exterior  com- 
merce, but  some  machinery  has  been  imported  into  Kabul, 
and  fire-arms  are  manufactured  there.  Foreign  trade,  chiefly 
with  India  (1912)  estimated — exports,  $5,500,000;  imports, 
$4,500,000. 

Alaska. — Area,  590,884  square  miles;  population  (1910), 
64,350;  between  52°  and  72"  north  latitude  and  141°  and  170° 
west  longitude.  Principal  towns:  Fairbanks,  population  (1910), 
3,500 ;  Nome,  2,500 ;  Skagway,  1,800.  This  vast  territory,  includ- 
ing the  Aleutian  Islands,  came  into  the  i^ossession  of  the  United 
States  by  purchase  from  Russia  in  1867,  at  a  cost  of  $7,200,000 
in  gold.  Congress  created  Alaska  a  civil  and  territorial  govern- 
ment May  17,  1884.  At  the  time  of  its  purchase  from  Russia 
it  was  considered  a  grea^t  folly  (Seward's  folly).  The  territory 
has  far  more  than  paid  for  itself  to  date,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  countries  in  its  resources  in  seal  and  other  fur-bearing 
animals,   minerals,  fisheri^s  and  timber.     It   has   vast   lumber 


144       UNCLE   SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

« 

districts  in  its  southern  parts.  The  National  Forests  have  an 
area  of  26,761,626  acres.  Its  coast  line  is  over  18,000  miles,  or 
more  than  that  of  all  the  United  States  proper.  There  are  61 
volcanoes,  10  of  which  are  active.  Alaska  is  one  of  the  greatest 
glacier  regions  on  the  globe.  There  are  numerous  hot  mineral 
and  boiling  springs.  Medicinal  springs  abound.  Its  great  rivers, 
tlie  Yukon  and  the  Kuskokwim  are  navigable  for  upwards  of 
3,000  miles. 

Since  1896  the  development  of  placer  mining,  which  supplies 
most  of  Alaska's  gold  output,  has  made  wonderful  progress. 
The  yield  increased  from  $2,500,000  in  1897  to  about  $20,072,420 
in  1911,  more  than  half  of  it  coming  from  the  Seward  peninsula 
(Nome  and  other  centers).  The  placers  of  theTanana,  Copper 
and  Koyukuk  Rivers  and  Porcupine  Creek  are  conspicuous  for 
their  yield.  The  gold  production  of  1911  was  806,179  ounces 
valued  at  $16,665,200.  Copper  has  been  discovered  in  the  Cop- 
per River,  upper  Tanana,  and  other  districts.  Coal  is  mined 
along  the  Yukon.  Valuable  coal  fields  have  been  discovered  in 
the  Matanuska  and  Bering  fields.  Tin  has  been  found  near 
Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  and  petroleum  fields  have  been  investigated 
along  the  coasts.  In  a  few  districts  much  hay  and  a  good  variety 
of  field  crops  may  be  raised.  Reindeer  for  draft  and  meat  pur- 
poses are  multiplying.  A  cable  from  Seattle  connects  the  most 
important  coast  towns  with  the  United  States,  and  a  system  of 
internal  telegraphs  is  in  operation. 

Algeria. — The  most  important  colony  of  France,  situated  on 
the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Africa.  Area  with  the  Sahara,  327,000 
square  miles.  Population  in  1911,  5,563,000,  of  whom  700,000 
are  foreigners,  400,000  French.  Capital,  Algiers,  172,000,  Oran, 
123,000;  Constantine,  65,000.  Occupied  by  France  in  1830. 
Climate  resembles  that  of  southern  Italy.  The  coast  is  divided 
into  several  long  strips  by  the  parallel  chains  of  the  Great  and 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY        145 

Lesser  Atlas — viz.,  the  coast  plain  onlj'  partially  arable;  the  Tell, 
the  chief  agricultural  and  stock-farming  region;  and  the  Algerian 
Sahara,  with  fertile  oases.  The  chief  crops  are  grain,  wine,  oil, 
tobacco,  dates  and  southern  fruits.  Large  quantities  of  vegeta- 
bles are  raised  for  the  markets  of  France.  Cork  and  esparto  grass 
for  paper  making  are  exported.  Horses,  camels  and  sheep  are  of 
superior  cjuality.  The  country  is  extraordinarily  rich  in  phos- 
phates, and  yields  iron,  copper,  lead  and  salt.  The  Arab 
natives  make  carpets  and  their  other  distinctive  wares.  The 
French  have  few  manufactures.  Wagon  roads  are  fine,  and 
nearly  three  times  the  length  of  the  railroads,  which  have  made 
rapid  progress.  Races — Berber,  French,  Italians,  etc.  Reli- 
gions— Mohammedan,  Christian,  and  Jewish.  Foreign  trade 
(1912)  almost  wholly  with  France— exports,  $103,965,000;  im- 
ports, $131,010,000. 

Andorra. — A  republic  in  the  Pyrenees.  Area,  176  square 
miles;  population,  5, '-231.  Situated  about  42°  north  latitude  and 
2"  east  longitude.  Before  the  French  revolution  this  valley, 
high  among  the  mountains,  had  no  sovereign  rights,  but  was  a 
barony  of  the  Counts  of  Urgel  and  of  Aragon,  having  govern- 
mental relations  both  with  France  and  Spain.  In  1793  the 
French  Republic  declined  to  receive  the  customary  tribute,  in 
1810  the  Spanish  Cortes  abolished  the  feiudal  regime,  and  thus 
Andorra  became  an  indej^endent  state.  The  inhabitants  con- 
tinue to  govern  themselves  in  accordance  with  old  feudal  cus- 
toms. The  land  belongs  to  a  few  families.  Cattle  breeding  and 
a  little  iron  and  woolen  manufacturing  are  the  chief  industries. 
The  village  of  Andorra  is  the  capital,  but  San  Julia  de  Loria  is  a 
more  important  place.  Race,  chiefly  Spanish.  No  trade  statis- 
tics. 

Angola. — A  Portuguese  colony  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa 
between  6'  and  18°  S.  Lat.    Area,  435,000  sq.  miles;  population. 


146        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

3,800,000.  The  agricultural  pi-oducts  are  sugar,  cotton,  coffee, 
rubber,  palm  oil  and  sisal.  The  Port  of  Loanda  is  the  capital; 
population  (1911)  17,541.  A  railroad  extends  from  this  city 
to  Malange.  Thence  it  is  projected  towards  the  Belgian  Congo. 
Benguela  and  Mossamedes,  population  (1911)  4,000  and  3,000 
respectively,  are  other  railroad  terminals  on  the  Atlantic.  Trade 
in  1912  (mainly  with  Portugal).  Imports,  $2,000,000;  exports, 
$1,800,000. 

Arabia. — A  peninsula  and  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  be- 
tween 13°  and  33°  north  latitude  and  35"  and  60  east  longitude. 
Area,  1,170,000  sq.  miles;  population,  8,500,000.  Mecca,  the 
capital;  population,  60,000.  It  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
seas,  is  an  extensive  desert  land,  interspersed  with  a  few  fertile 
spots  on  the  coasts,  and  oases  in  the  interior,  where  millet,  cotton, 
coffee,  indigo,  barley,  sugar,  dates,  tobacco  and  aromatic  plants 
are  raised.  Some  of  the  inhabitants  dwell  in  towns  and  till  the 
soil.  Commonly  they  are  Bedouins,  or  wandering  tribes,  whose 
wealth  consists  of  horses,  camels,  asses  and  mules,  for  which  the 
country  is  noted.  In  all  this  vast  country  there  is  scarcely  a 
single  stream  deserving  the  title  of  river.  Mecca,  the  birthplace 
of  Mohammed,  derives  its  support  entirely  from  the  thousands 
of  pilgrims  that  travel  thither  from  every  part  of  the  Moham- 
medan world.  Many  also  visit  Medina,  his  burial-place.  It  is 
on  the  slojies  of  Yemen,  on  the  southwest  coast,  that  the  famous 
Mocha  coffee  is  raised;  but  owing  to  primitive  methods,  the 
production  has  become  very  small.  Only  in  the  mountainous 
southwest  has  a  fixed  population  established  itself.  Race, 
Arabian,  divided  into  many  tribes.  Religion,  Mohammedan. 
Foreign  trade  small.  The  railroad  from  Damascus  to  Mecca  has 
reached  Medina. 

Argentine  Republic. — South  America,  between  22°  and  53° 
south  latitude  and  50    and  72    west  longitude.     The  third  largest 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND   WOELD   HISTORY       147 

of  the  American  Republics.  Area,  1,135,840  square  miles;  pop- 
ulation (1911),  7,500,000;  capital,  Buenos  Aires,  1,329,697; 
Rosario,  201,268.  This  country  is  the  richest  and  most  pros- 
perous in  South  America.  Climate  chiefly  temperate.  Twenty 
years  ago  only  a  cattle-raising  country,  Argentine  has  become 
largely  agricultural.  Over  45,000  square  miles  under  crop. 
Most  of  it  is  pampas  or  comparatively  flat  plains.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  pampas  and  the  region  between  the  Parana  and  Uru- 
guay rivers  are  most  important  for  farming.  Wheat  produc- 
tion in  1910  Avas  3,700,000  tons.  Much  wheat  is  exported. 
Maize  and  linseed  are  very  large  crops.  Animal  raising  is  very 
extensive,  chiefly  cattle  and  sheep.  The  large  resources  in  min- 
erals near  the  western  mountains  are  still  almost  undeveloped. 
Manufacturing  is  small,  but  growing.  The  Parana,  Paraguay 
and  Uruguay  rivers  are  splendid  highways  of  trade.  Railroads 
crossing  the  grain  regions  are  pushing  tow^ards  the  Andes,  and  the 
transcontinental  railroad  has  reached  the  Chilean  frontier. 
Races — Spanish- American,  Italian,  German,  and  Indian.  Re- 
ligion, Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade  1911 — exports,  $314,- 
957,000,  chiefly  frozen  meats,  Uve  cattle,  wool,  wheat,  linseed, 
hides;  impoi'ts,  $335,806,365,  chiefly  textiles,  iron  machinery, 
etc. 

The  Commonwealth  of  Australia. — A  self-governing  col- 
ony of  Great  Britain.  The  smallest  of  the  continents  between 
11°  and  44°  south  latitude  and  112°  and  152°  east  longitude.  Its 
states  are  New  South  Wales,  South  Australia,  Queensland,  W^est- 
ern  Australia,  Victoria,  Tasmania.  Area,  2,972,906  square 
miles.  Population  (1911),  4,455,000.  Temporary  capital,  Mel- 
bourne. Canberra  has  been  selected  as  the  site  of  its  permanent 
capital.  Melbourne  and  Sydney  each  has  a  population  of  about 
500,000.  Australia  resembles  Africa  in  surface  features — a  high 
plain  in  the  interior,  with  mountains  in  the  east  and  west,  and 


148       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND*  WORLD    HISTORY 

very  few  lowlands.  The  Murray  is  the  only  large  river  system, 
and  this  is  only  navigable  a  part  of  the  year.  Climate,  dry, 
except  on  the  east  coast.  The  southeast  and  southwest  are 
adapted  for  cereals,  of  which  wheat  is  the  most  important. 
Fruit,  including  the  vine,  is  successfully  cultivated.  Frequent 
droughts  impair  the  value  of  agriculture.  Australia  produces 
about  half  the  wool  the  world  consumes.  The  yield  of  gold  is 
very  large,  and  coal  and  other  minerals  are  extracted  in  large 
quantities.  An  adequate  railroad  system  is  developing.  The 
distance  of  Australia  from  other  civilized  lands  is  a  great  disad- 
vantage to  its  commerce.  Races,  British  and  aboriginal.  Three 
fourths  of  the  population  are  Protestant.  Foreign  trade  (1912) 
—exports,  $394,175,000;  imports,  $390,490,000. 

Austria-Hungary. — A  limited  monarchy  in  central  Europe, 
south  of  Germany  and  Russia.  It  is  the  third  largest  kingdom 
in  Europe.  Agricultural  industry  ranks  first,  producing  grains 
of  all  kinds,  and  potatoes,  beet-root  sugar,  wine  and  barley. 
Population,  51,340,000;  area,  261,267  miles.  The  capital  is 
Vienna;  population  (1910),  2,030,000;  Budapest,  881,000.  The 
empire  is  mostly  surrounded  by  mountains  and  highlands,  and 
sharp  contrasts  in  topography  result  in  widely  different  climates. 
The  southern  provinces  have  mild  winters  and  dry  summers, 
while  the  Hungarian  plains  have  very  hot  summers  and  severe 
winters.  Only  the  Alps  have  large  rainfall.  Agriculture,  on 
the  whole,  is  backward.  The  Hungarian  plains  are  among  the 
great  wheat -producing  regions  of  the  world.  Hungary  also  has 
the  chief  tobacco-growing  district  in  Europe.  The  Alpine  lands 
are  most  favorable  for  animal  raising.  Mining  is  best  developed 
in  Bohemia,  especially  the  coal  deposits.  Coal  production  is 
not  equal  to  the  demand.  Manufactures  are  of  subordinate 
importance,  owing  to  slow  introduction  of  new  machinery,  high 
freights  and  race  animosities.     The  largest  industrial  develop- 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        149 

ment  is  in  the  northwest,  where  the  population  is  most  dense. 
The  railroad  system  is  well  developed,  and  there  are  over  100,000 
miles  of  carriage  roads  and  5,000  miles  of  navigable  waterways 
(rivers  and  canals).  No  country  has  suffered  more  from  race 
hatred.  The  races  are  Germans,  Slavs,  Rumanians  and  Mag- 
yars. The  Roman  Catholic  faith  numbers  30,580,000  adher- 
ents; there  are,  besides,  Protestants,  Greek  Catholics  and  Jews. 
Foreign  trade  (1912)— exports,  $554,560,000;  imports,  $726,- 
500,000. 

Belgium. — A  kingdom  of  North  Europe,  between  France  and 
Germany,  is  the  most  densely  populated  country  in  the  world. 
It  is  a  great  manufacturing  country.  Every  foot  of  soil  is  culti- 
vated to  the  highest  degree.  Rich  in  coal,  iron,  zinc,  lead  and 
copper.  Large  producer  of  beet-root  sugar.  Area,  11,374 
square  miles;  population  (1910)  7,423,784.  Brussels  is  the  Cap- 
ital; population,  196,000;  Antwerp,  320,000;  Liege,  174,000; 
Ghent,  165,000.  Farming,  though  very  intensive,  cannot  produce 
enough  grain  for  home  consumption.  Coal  measures  occupy  one- 
twenty-second  of  the  area,  but  are  so  deep  that  coal  mining  is 
becoming  more  and  more  difficult.  Over  1,000,000  persons  are 
engaged  in  manufacturing,  the  metal  and  machinery  industries 
taking  the  first  rank,  while  textiles,  glass,  porcelain  and  other 
branches  are  very  important.  The  railroad  and  canal  systems 
are  highly  developed,  but  sea  communications  are  hampered  by 
the  small  extent  of  coast  line.  More  than  one-half  of  the  people 
are  Flemish,  42  per  cent.  French,  and  the  rest  Walloons.  Nearly 
all  are  Roman  Catholics,  with  a  few  Protestants  and  Jews.  For- 
eign trade  (1912)— exports,  $747,600,000;  imports,  $876,415,000. 

Bolivia. — Is  an  inland  Republic  of  South  iVmerica,  north  of 
Argentina.  The  agricultural  products  are  fruit,  coffee,  corn  and 
vegetables  common  to  both  temperate  and  tropical  countries. 
The  tropical  forests  are  rich  in  cabinet,  dye  and  building  woods. 


150        UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

India-rubber  of  first-class  quality  is  found  in  enormous  quantities. 
Gold  and  silver  are  extensively  mined,  also  copper  and  tin.  Area 
708,200  square  miles;  population  (1910  estimated),  2,268,000. 
Sucre  is  the  capital;  population,  23,500.  The  most  important  town 
is  La  Paz,  79,000.  In  this  country  is  partly  situated  Lake  Titi- 
caca,  on  whose  historic  shores  stand  the  ruins  of  structures  built 
by  the  once  mighty  race  of  Incas.  Races,  Spanish-Americans 
and  Indians.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Bolivia  has  no  sea 
frontage,  and  its  foreign  trade  is  chiefly  through  the  Chilean  port 
of  Antofagasta,  with  which  the  mining  region  is  connected  by 
rail.  Trade  in  1911 — exports,  nearly  all  metals  and  rubber, 
$32,226,157,  imports,  $22,164,850. 

BraziL — Is  a  Republic  of  South  America.  Area,  3,220,000 
square  miles;  population,  17,300,000.  Rio  Janeiro  is  the  capi- 
ital;  population,  812,000.  Brazil  is  the  largest  of  the  South 
American  countries,  being  a  little  larger  than  the  United  States 
proper.  It  comprises  nearly  one-half  of  the  area  of  South 
America.  This  country  surpasses  all  others  in  the  extent  of  its 
navigable  rivers.  It  also  has  immense  forests  and  mines  of  great 
value,  but  very  little  has  been  done  to  develop  its  resources. 
The  lowlands  of  the  Amazon  Basin  are  covered  by  dense  tropical 
forests  and  are  unhealthful.  The  highlands  inland,  south  of  the- 
Amazon  Basin,  are  dry,  steppe-like  and  sparsely  populated. 
The  region  of  the  plantations  is  in  the  coastal  zone,  which  is  fairly 
well  tilled,  and  contains  nearly  all  the  important  cities.  The 
climate  is  tropical  in  the  north,  subtropical  in  the  middle  lati- 
tudes and  temperate  in  the  south.  Brazil  is  the  largest  producer 
of  coffee  and  rubber  in  the  world,  and  there  is  now  an  over- 
production of  coffee,  the  larger  part  of  which  is  exported  from 
Santos.  The  four  States  of  San  Paulo,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Espirito 
Santo  and  Minas  Geraes  are  the  principal  coffee-growing  dis- 
tricts.    The  Amazon  basin  abounds  with  rubber  trees.     Sugar- 


UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY  151 

cane  is  the  great  crop  of  the  regions  tributary  to  Pernambuco 
and  Bahia.  Cattle  thrive  chiefly  among  the  German  farmers  of 
the  south.  Mining  is  httle  developed,  and  manufactures,  con- 
fined chiefly  to  the  meat,  sugar  and  beer-brewing  industries,  are 
in  their  infancy.  Steamers  serve  the  Amazon  Basin  for  freight 
carriage,  and  the  railroad  system  is  considerably  developed  in 
the  southern  states.  Races — Portuguese-American,  German, 
Italian  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholics.  Exports, 
chiefly  cofi^ee,  rubber,  tobacco,  hides  and  cacao;  imports,  food- 
stuff's, coal,  machinery  and  textiles.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — 
exports,  $3'^4,837,000;  imports,  $256,598,358. 

British  Honduras. — Is  in  the  northeast  Central  America, 
adjoining  Mexico.  A  British  crown  colony.  Area,  7,562  square 
miles;  population,  (1911)  40,458.  Belize,  the  capital  and  chief 
town;  population,  10,478.  The  country  consists  chiefly  of 
primeval  forests,  with  savannas  and  open  sandy  plains  covered 
with  a  wiry  grass  and  dotted  with  pine  trees.  The  soil  is  ex- 
ceedingly rich,  and  sugar-cane  is  the  chief  crop.  The  best  of 
cocoa  trees  grow  wild  in  the  bush.  Its  staple  products  are 
natural  woods,  mahogany  and  logwood,  and  many  excellent 
furniture  woods.  There  are  some  thriving  sugar  estates,  and 
large  coft'ee  plantations  have  been  started.  Fruits  are  rapidly 
and  extensively  grown.  Trade  in  1911  with  Great  Britain. 
Imports,  $638,850;  exports,  $345,130. 

Bulgaria. — Is  a  Balkan  kingdom  between  41°  and  44°  north 
latitude  and  22°  and  28°  east  longitude.  Area,  37,282  square 
miles.  Population  (1910),  4,329,108.  Sofia,  the  capital,  has 
102,769  inhabitants;  Philippopolis,  48,000;  Varna,  41,317; Rust- 
chuk,  36,000.  Crossed  by  Balkan  ranges,  with  the  Danube 
plain  in  the  north  and  a  broad  rich  plain  (East  Rumelia)  in  the 
south,  which  is  famed  for  its  production  of  rose  essence.  The 
Bulgarians  are  industrious  and  frugal  people,  72  per  cent,  of 


152        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

whom  are  farmers.  Cattle  and  sheep-herding  are  important; 
iron  and  coal  are  the  chief  minerals;  military  service  is  obliga- 
tory; less  than  29  per  cent,  of  the  population  can  read  or  write. 
It  has  a  large  trade  in  manufactured  articles,  and  507  miles  of 
railroad  in  operation.  Freed  from  the  Turkish  yoke  in  1878, 
many  schools  have  been  established,  much  progress  made  in  all 
directions,  and  manufacturing  is  more  advanced  than  in  most 
Balkan  States,  especially  in  footwear,  leather-making,  woolen 
textiles  and  carpets.  Races — two-thirds  Bulgarians,  one-seventh 
Turks,  Rumanians,  Greeks,  etc.  Religion,  chiefly  Greek 
Church.  Foreign  trade  (1911)— imports,  $39,470,000;  exports, 
$30,92(5,800. 

Cape  Colony. — A  British  colony  in  South  Africa,  now  part 
of  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Area,  276,902  square  miles; 
population,  (1911)  2,564,965.  Chief  cities:  Cape  Town,  popula- 
tion, 78,000;  Kimberley,  34,500;  Port  Elizabeth,  33,000.  It 
extends  between  28°  and  35°  south  latitude  and  16'  and  30'' 
east  longitude.  A  large  portion  of  the  country  is  but  a 
wide  area  of  semi-arid  regions,  which  have  nutritious 
grasses  that  support  millions  of  sheep  and  cattle  and  many 
ostriches.  Stretching  across  the  southern  edge  of  Cape 
Colony  is  a  zone  of  excellent  lands  producing  wheat, 
maize  and  other  crops  of  the  temperate  zone.  Thousands  of 
acres  are  in  vines,  the  colony  being  a  large  producer  of  wine,  and 
also  of  north  and  south  European  fruits,  of  which  large  quanti- 
ties are  sent  in  cool  storage  to  Europe  as  early  as  February  and 
March.  Four-fifths  of  Cape  Colony  needs  artificial  irrigation, 
and  plants  for  this  purpose  are  developing.  The  autumn  rains 
provide  much  water.  Wool-growing  is  the  largest  grazing  in- 
dustry, and  ostrich  feathers  from  the  domesticated  birds  are 
derived  chiefly  from  this  region.  Goats  are  more  numerous  than 
cattle,  the  Angora  goat  yielding  large  quantities  of  mohair.     The 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        153 

diamond  mines  at  Kimberley  practically  monopolize  the  world's 
trade.  Efforts  to  develop  industries  since  the  Boer  war  are 
noteworthy,  but  wine-making  is  still  the  most  important  branch. 
The  ports  of  Cape  Town,  East  London  and  Port  Elizabeth  are 
connected  with  the  far  interior  by  rail,  and  trains  are  now  running 
from  Cape  Town  to  Victoria  Falls,  on  the  Zambesi  River,  1,6-10 
miles.  Races — British,  Dutch,  and  the  natives,  who  outnumber 
the  whites  about  six  to  one.  Religion,  Protestant.  Trade  in 
1911— exports,  $185,120,000;  imports,  $181,117,695. 

China. — A  Republic.  Area,  4,278,591  square  miles;  popu- 
lation (1911)  439,500,000,  of  which  407,737,305  in  China  proper. 
Peking  is  the  capital;  population,  estimated  at  692,850  by  the 
Chinese  census  of  1911.  China  extends  between  18°  and  54° 
north  latitude  and  74"  and  134"  east  longitude,  and  contains  over 
one-fourth  the  population  of  the  earth.  Its  civilization,  arts 
and  culture  are  the  oldest  in  the  world,  and  for  centuries  have 
been  practically  unchanged.  It  was  the  last  of  the  Eastern 
nations,  to  open  its  ports  to  the  world.  The  present 
outlook  for  more  rapid  internal  improvements  is  encouraging. 
Railroads  are  being  built.  The  line  from  the  Yangtze  to  Peking 
is  755  miles  long.  The  one  from  Pukow  to  Tientsin  is  626 
miles.  Western  methods  of  manufacturing  cotton  and  some 
machinery  are  being  introduced.  Its  dense  population  makes 
necessary  rigid  economy.  Its  rivers  and  many  canals  are  of 
great  importance  for  transportation  in  the  absence  of  railroads. 
Its  largest  cities  stand  on  their  banks,  while  many  thousands  of 
people  live  in  boats  which  float  on  their  surface.  Tibet  is  high, 
cold  and  barren,  excepting  in  some  of  the  lower  lands  in  the  south. 
Manchuria  has  fine  and  well-tilled  agricultural  lands  in  the  south, 
raising  large  crops  of  wheat,  beans  and  other  produce.  It  is  the 
most  valuable  part  of  the  empire  outside  of  China  proper.  Rice 
forms  the  principal  food  of  China;  fish  comes  next.     Domestic 


154       UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

animals,  excepting  hogs  and  poultry,  are  of  subordinate  import- 
ance. Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agriculture. 
Tillage  of  the  soil  is  most  extensive.  Each  family  has  only  a 
half  acre  to  two  acres,  and  the  hoe  takes  the  place  of  the  plow. 
The  north  of  China  resembles  our  Northern  States  and  the  south 
the  Gulf  States  in  vegetation  and  crops.  The  country  is  very 
rich  in  minerals,  especially  coal  and  iron,  but  mining  methods 
are  primitive,  and  the  output  is  small.  Religions — Confucian- 
ism, Buddhism,  Taoism,  Mohammedan;  1,094,000  Roman  Cath- 
olics, 35,000  Protestants.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports, 
$317,405,650;  exports,  $254,015,405. 

Chile. — A  South  American  reijublic.  Area,  299,626  square 
miles;  population  (1910),  3,415,060;  extends  between  17°  and  55° 
south  latitude  and  68°  and  75°  west  longitude.  Chileans  are 
progressive  people,  encouraging  manufactures  and  providing 
good  educational  facilities.  Santiago  is  the  capital;  population, 
335,000;  Valparaiso,  leading  port  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South 
America,  144,000;  Concepcion,  50,000;  Iquique,  42,788.  The 
country  lies  west  of  the  Andes  Mountains — extending  from  Peru 
on  the  north  to  Cape  Horn,  a  distance  of  2,500  miles.  The  eleva- 
tion of  its  eastern  boundry,  the  Andes  range,  is  from  13,000  to 
14,000  feet  above  the  sea  level;  many  of  its  peaks  rise  higher. 
The  greater  part  of  the  coast  is  studded  with  islands,  some  of 
which  are  very  fertile.  The  north  is  sultry  and  rainless  (desert 
of  Atacama) ;  the  center  has  regular  winter  rains,  and  the  south 
has  superabundant  rainfall  (120  inches)  and  a  cool  temperature. 
Agriculture  is  possible  in  the  north  onlj'  by  irrigation  in  a  few 
river  valleys;  in  central  Chile,  between  Santiago  and  Valdivia, 
our  cereals  thrive  finely.  Here  also  tobacco  and  the  grape  are 
cultivated  (50,000  men  in  the  wine  industry).  The  central 
farming  region  sends  foodstuffs  to  north  Chile.  Forests 
predominate  in  the  south,  but  are  as  yet  little  utilized.     Stock 


UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        155 

I'aising,  chiefly  sheep,  is  not  extensive.  Mining  supplies  92  per 
cent,  of  the  total  exports.  Over  1,000,000  tons  of  nitrate  of 
soda  are  sent  abroad  for  fertilizers  every  year.  Copper  is  the 
largest  metal  export,  followed  by  silver  and  gold.  Manufactur- 
ing in  many  respects  is  still  in  its  early  stages,  though  Chile  is 
first  in  South  America  in  these  industries,  chiefly  flour  mills, 
foundries,  tanneries,  spinning  and.  weaving  mills,  potteries  an-l 
metal  goods.  As  there  is  little  interior  navigation,  railroads  are 
of  great  importance  and  fairly  well  developed.  Over  4,000 
miles  are  in  operation.  Steamers  ply  the  coast  trade.  Races — • 
Spanish-American,  German  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Cath- 
olic. Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $127,381,500;  exports, 
$123,488,420. 

Colombia. — A  South  American  republic.  Area,  486,827 
square  miles;  population,  (1912),  5,475,961,  extends  between  67" 
and  79"  w^est  longitude  and  12"  north  and  4°  south  latitude. 
Low  plains  and  valleys  in  the  north  give  abundant  pasturage 
to  cattle.  South  of  Caribbean  coast-lands  the  Cordilleras  cover 
about  one-third  of  the  state,  and  high  plateaus  among  them  yield 
wheat  and  other  temperate  crops.  Rainfall  is  very  heavy  on  the 
narrow  Pacific  slope,  which  is  covered  with  dense  tropical  vegeta- 
tion. East  of  the  Cordilleras  is  a  wide  expanse  of  selvas  (forested 
plains),  rich  in  rubber,  also  llanos,  or  grass  plains,  where  cattle 
graze.  Coffee  of  good  quality  is  cultivated  at  middle  altitudes. 
The  great  differences  in  altitude  give  Colombia  all  the  climates 
and  a  large  variety  of  the  vegetable  prod*ucts  of  the  world.  In 
the  coastal  low  grounds  and  river  valleys  the  products  are  purely 
tropical;  between  3,000  and  6,500  feet,  maize  and  coffee  predom- 
inate; between  6,500  and  10,000  feet,  the  climate  is  delightful, 
and  wheat,  vegetables  and  Northern  fruits  are  cultivated.  Co- 
lombia is  the  source  of  the  world's  supply  of  emeralds,  but  the 
mining  of  gold,  silver  and  coal  and  other  important  minerals  is 


156       UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND   WORLD   HISTORY 

little  developed.  The  population  live  chiefly  on  the  high  pla- 
teaus and  at  the  seaports.  Few  countries  are  so  poorly  provided 
with  means  of  transportation.  There  are  about  400  miles  of 
railroad,  almost  no  wagon  roads,  and  only  poor  mule  paths. 
The  Magdalena  River  is  navigable  nearly  to  Honda,  600  miles, 
the  Cauca  to  Caceres,  and  the  Atrato  to  Quibdo;  but  the  most 
populous  regions  among  the  highlands  are  reached  only  by  mule 
trains.  The  coast  towns  import  wheat  more  cheaply  than  they 
can  bring  it  from  their  own  highlands.  The  few  industries  are 
centered  around  Bogota,  the  capital;  population,  1 20,000; 
Barranquilla,  55,000;  Medellin,  53,000;  Cartagena,  25,000;  Bucar- 
amanga,  25,000.  Caribbean  seaports — Cartagena  (declined), 
Sabanilla  (port  of  Barranquilla);  Pacific,  Buena  Ventura. 
Races— Spanish-American  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic. 
Foreign  trade  (1 91 1  )~imports,  $18,108,863; exports,  $22,375,900. 

The  Belgium  Congo. — A  Belgium  colony  in  Africa,  admin- 
istered by  a  Governor  General.  Area,  939,292  square  miles; 
population,  estimated,  8,000,000,  l>etween  6"  north  and  14°  south 
latitude  and  12°  and  32°  east  longitude.  Boma,  50  miles  up  the 
Congo,  is  the  cajiital.  The  colony  is  divided  into  22  districts  for 
administrative  purposes. 

The  river  basin  is  the  second  largest  in  the  world,  and  most 
of  it  is  included  in  the  Congo  state.  The  state  is  chiefly  a  high, 
flat  table-land,  bordered  on  the  west  by  mountains,  through 
which  the  river  has  cut  its  way  for  270  miles,  dropping  to  the 
coastal  plain  1,800  feet  in  that  distance.  There  is  navigation 
up  the  lower  Congo  for  90  miles  from  its  mouth;  Matadi  is  the 
head  of  navigation  for  ocean  steamers.  The  rapids  through  the 
mountains  are  circumvented  by  a  railroad  to  Stanley  Pool,  above 
which  about  8,000  miles  of  navigation  are  spread  along  the  var- 
ious branches  of  the  upper  Congo  system.  The  climate  is  torrid, 
and,  excepting  at  some  places,  unhealthful  for  the  white  races;  but 


UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        1.57 

the  heat  is  tempered  by  the  elevation  of  the  phiteau,  and  as  the 
whites  have  learned  the  conditions  of  health,  the  mortality 
among  them  has  been  reduced  more  than  one-half.  Great  trop- 
ical forests  are  found  onlj'  in  the  east  and  northeast,  the  most  of 
the  state  being  rolling  grass-lands,  interspersed  with  areas  of  tim- 
ber. The  government  has  a  large  number  of  stations,  and 
many  posts  are  maintained  by  missionary  and  trading  societies. 
A  profusion  of  tropical  plants  and  animals  provides  abundant 
food  for  the  natives.  The  chief  commercial  products  as  yet  are 
rubber,  ivory  anjd  palm  oil,  but  some  cotton,  coffee  and  tobacco 
plantations  are  beginning  to  flourish.  The  wealth  in  rubber  is 
enormous.  It  is  a  misdemeanor  to  kill  the  rubber  plant,  and 
millions  of  them  are  being  set  out  in  jjlantations.  European  cattle, 
introduced  at  70  stations,  are  doing  well,  though  they  are  not 
succeeding  in  some  districts.  Gold,  copper,  silver  and  iron  are 
the  principal  metals,  and  Katanga,  the  southeast  district,  has 
great  mineral  wealth.  On  the  upper  Congo  and  its  tributaries  are 
100  small  steamers  and  many  tow-boats,  which  ply  to  the  heads 
of  navigation.  Slave-raiding,  cannibalism,  human  sacrifices,  etc., 
are  severely  punished  and  suppressed  wherever  the  government 
has  brought  the  country  under  its  influence.  INIany  thousands  of 
the  younger  natives  are  being  taught  trades,  and  all  manual  and 
considerable  skilled  labor  is  performed  by  natives  under  white 
supervision.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $9,942,960;  ex- 
ports, $10,804,295,  three-fourths  rubber. 

Corea. — Practically  a  Japanese  colony  in  Asia.  Area,  84,400 
square  miles;  population  (1912),  13,832,376;  government,  im- 
perial, strongly  under  Japanese  influence.  Between  34°  and 
44°  north  latitude  and  125°  and  131°  east  longitude.  Capital, 
Seoul;  population,  193,640.  A  very  mountainous  peninsula, 
about  600  miles  long  and  135  miles  wide  at  its  broadest  part.  It 
has  a  few  excellent  harbors  and  a  good  climate.     Most  of  the 


158       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL  AND   WORLD    HISTORY 

people  are  farmers,  and  agriculture  thrives  best  in  the  southern 
half  of  the  peninsula,  rice  and  beans  being  the  chief  crops.  The 
industry  is  greatly  hampered  by  lack  of  room,  as  the  valleys  are 
narrow.  Many  mountain-sides  are  terraced  and  cultivated. 
Gold  and  coal  has  been  found  in  many  places,  and  a  number  of 
foreign  companies,  especially  Americans,  are  beginning  to  work 
concessions.  Railway  lines  are  gradually  being  built.  See 
Panama  Canal  Globe.  Ponies,  wheelbarrows,  and  sedan-chairs 
are  used  for  most  of  the  freightage  and  passenger  traffic.  The 
important  ports,  Fusan,  Chemulpo,  Mokpo  and  Wunsan,  are 
open  to  foreign  traders.  Besides  Coreans,  242,000  Japanese, 
16,000  Chinese,  and  a  few  hundred  Americans  and  Europeans 
hve  in  the  country.  Religions — Buddhism,  Confucianism,  58,800 
Roman  CathoUcs  and  28,000  Protestants.  Trade  (1912)— im- 
ports, $27,405,500;  exports,  $12,301,825. 

Costa  Rica. — A  Central  American  repubUc.  Area,  18,400 
square  miles;  population  in  (1911)  388,266.  Between  8°  and 
12°  north  latitude  and  81°  and  86°  west  longitude.  Two  parallel 
mountain  ranges  cross  Costa  Rica,  with  the  depression  of  Cartago 
between  them.  Several  active  volcanoes  are  in  the  northern 
range,  and  among  them  Turrialba  and  Irazu  are  over  11,000 
feet  in  height.  The  southern  chain  also  has  lofty  mountains. 
A  third  of  the  population  live  on  the  Pacific  or  dry  side  of  the 
mountains,  many  having  relations  with  the  coffee  plantations 
that  supply  Costa  Rica  with  more  than  half  of  her  exports. 
Coffee  is  the  largest  crop,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellence.  It  con- 
stitutes 46%  of  the  republic's  exports.  Cattle  are  herded  on  the 
uplands,  but  the  home  supply  of  beef  is  not  equal  to  the  demand. 
San  Jose,  the  capital,  on  the  table-land,  in  the  heart  of  the  coffee 
district,  has  24,963  inhabitants,  and  is  connected  by  rail  with 
Puerto  Limon,  the  Atlantic  port.  "  There  are  about  400  miles  of 
railroad  lines  in  the  covmtry.     Punta  Arenas  is  the  Pacific  port. 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAAL\    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        159 

Races,  Spanish-American  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catho- 
lic. The  imports  are  hardware  and  manufactures,  more  than  half 
coming  from  the  United  States.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports, 
$8,967,561;  exports,  $9,020,150. 

Cuba. — Area,  40,000  square  miles;  population  (1910), 
2,220,278.  Between  19°  and  23°  north  latitude  and  74"  and  85° 
west  longitude.  Havana  is  the  capital;  population,  297,000. 
Other  large  ports,  Cienfuegos,  30,000;  Santiago,  45,478;  Matan- 
zas,  45,282.  Cuba  is  the  largest  island  of  the  West  Indies  and 
the  largest  fertile  island  of  America.  It  embraces  nearly  half 
the  land  surface  of  the  West  Indies.  Its  deeply  indented  coasts 
provide  many  excellent  harbors,  which  is  one  of  its  great  com- 
mercial advantages.  In  the  west  are  the  low  mountains.  Sierra 
de  los  Organos,  on  whose  southern  slopes  (Vuelta  Abajo)  the  most 
highly  prized  tobacco  of  Cuba  is  raised.  In  the  east  are  higher 
mountains,  where  agriculture  is  much  diversified,  but  this  region 
yields  less  for  export  than  other  parts  of  the  island.  Between 
the  eastern  and  western  mountains  are  the  rich  central  plains 
that  produce  the  great  sugar  crop  of  Cuba  and  give  pasturage 
to  large  numbers  of  cattle.  The  climate  is  tropical,  tempered  by 
the  northeast  trade  winds  so  that  the  white  race  can  live  in  any 
part  of  the  island.  The  cities  in  which  sanitary  regulations  are 
now  enforced  have  become  healthful.  Sugar  from  sugar-cane' 
and  tobacco  are  the  two  great  crops.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
tobacco  crop  is  exported.  Cocoanuts  and  bananas  are  exported 
from  the  eastern  part  of  the  island.  In  the  last  decade  the 
banana  trade  has  declined  because  of  the  larger  returns  of  the 
land  planted  to  cane.  The  eastern  mountains  yield  prime  iron 
ore  and  manganese.  In  1910  new  iron  mines  were  discovered  in 
the  vicinity  of  Mora  on  the  north  coast.  Short  railroads  cross 
the  island  from  north  to  south,  and  the  line  from  Havana  to  San- 
tiago was  completed  in  1903.     Wagon  roads  are  still  very  poor. 


160       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL  AND    WORLD   HISTORY 

Steamers  in  the  coastal  trade  make  the  circuit  of  the  island. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  people  are  Spanish-Americans,  142,000 
foreign  whites,  234,000  negroes,  271,000  mixed  blood,  and  14,000 
Chinese.  Religion,  chiefly  Roman  Catholic.  Havana  is  the 
great  tobacco  and  Matanzas  the  sugar  port,  the  United  States 
having  the  greater  part  of  the  trade.  Foreign  trade  mainly  with 
the  United  States.  In  1910  this  country  took  86  per  cent,  of  the 
Cuban  exports  and  supplied  50  per  cent,  of  the  imports.  (1911) 
—imports,  $113,055,774;  exports,  $125,943,652. 

Canada,  Dominion  of. — A  British  colony,  with  the  execu- 
tive government  vested  in  the  British  sovereign,  and  legislative 
functions  in  a  parliament,  of  which  the  House  of  Commons  is 
elected  by  popular  vote.  Area,  3,745,574  square  miles;  popula- 
tion, (1911),  7,205,364.  Capital,  Ottawa;  population,  86,340; 
Montreal,  466,197;  Toronto,  376,240;  Quebec,  78,067; 
Hamilton,  81,879;  Halifax,  46,081.  It  extends  from  42"  north 
latitude  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  above  77°  north  latitude,  and  from 
52°  to  141°  west  longitude.  It  includes  nine  provinces,  British 
Columbia,  IVIanitoba,  Nova  Scotia,  Ontario,  Quebec,  NewB  runs- 
wick,  Prince  Edward  Island,  Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta  (the 
last  two  organized  in  1905),  and  the  Northwest  Territories  and 
Yukon.  The  boundaries  of  the  eastern  provinces  were  changed 
in  1912  as  shown  on  the  Panama  Canal  Flat-Globe.  The  area  of 
both  Manitoba  and  Quebec  provinces  was  considerably  increased 
by  extension  of  territory  to  the  north.  It  has  the  ocean  on  three 
sides,  and  the  Great  Lakes  on  the  south.  The  Atlantic  ports  are 
nearer  to  European  markets  than  are  those  of  the  United  States. 
Canada  is  a  broad,  low  plain,  excepting  in  British  Columbia, 
which  is  the  mountain  region.  The  southern  part  of  the  eastern 
plain,  once  heavily  forested,  has  been  largely  cleared  for  farms. 
The  south  central  plain,  extending  in  to  Athabasca  from  the  south- 
ern border,  is  a  comparatively  level  prairie  with  deep  rich  soil,  one 


UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL  AND   WORLD    HISTORY       IGl 


of  the  finest  farm  and  grazing  regions  in  the  world.  This  region 
is  attracting  large  immigration.  About  70  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation are  farmers,  with  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  maize  as  the 
great  grain  crops.  Fruit  raising  is  important  in  Ontario  and 
Nova  Scotia.  Wide  areas  of  forest  in  northern  Quebec  and  On- 
tario and  in  British  Columbia  yield  great  wealth  in  lumber,  and 
the  manufacture  of  wood  pulp  for  paper  making  is  very  large. 
The  mountain  plateau  is  the  source  of  most  of  the  metals,  though 
iron  is  mined  on  the  east  coast.  Canada  is  usually  the  fourth  or 
fifth  country  in  the  annual  world-product  of  gold,  is  one  of  the 
two  largest  producers  of  nickel,  and  mines  much  coal.  The  fish- 
eries employ  80,000  persons.  The  annual  value  of  this  trade 
exceeds  $34,500,000.  The  vast  regions  north  of  the  forests  are 
not  likely  to  be  of  great  value  unless  mineral  wealth  is  dis- 
covered. The  St.  Lawrence  and  Great  Lakes  afford  large 
facilities  for  transportation.  Railroads  are  well  developed  in  the 
southeast,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  is  the  only  trans- 
continental line  in  America  owned  by  one  company.  Another 
transcontinental  line  (The  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railroad)  from 
Quebec  through  Winnipeg  to  Prince  Rupert  is  in  construction. 
The  mileage  constructed  by  June,  1911,  was  25,406  miles.  Races 
— British-American,  French  and  Indian.  Religions,  Protestant 
and  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $559,- 
320,544;  exports,  $315,317,250. 

Denmark. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  15,289  square 
miles;  population,  (1911)  2,757,000.  Between  54°  and  58°  north 
latitude  and  8°  and  13°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Copenhagen; 
population,  462,000.  Other  large  cities — Aarhuus,  62,000 ;  Odense, 
42,000.  Copenhagen  is  one  of  the  free  ports  of  Europe,  all  goods 
admitted  to  the  free  port  being  exemj^t  from  customs  duties. 
Thus  they  may  be  reshipped  to  foreign  ports  without  examination 
but  if  sent  into  Denmark  outside  of  the  free  port,  they  must  pay 


162       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

tariff  charges.  The  ]j;ingdom  is  entirely  lowland,  and  the  west 
coast  is  protected  from  the  sea  by  dikes  at  many  points-.  The 
Baltic  islands,  excepting  Bornholm,  are  flat  and  fertile,  but 
large  areas  of  moor  and  sand  are  met  in  Jutland.  The  climate 
is  oceanic,  mild  for  the  latitude,  but  great  storms  sometimes 
lash  the  coasts.  The  very  prosperous  Danes  have  agriculture 
and  cattle  breeding  as  their  chief  resources.  Two-thirds  of  the 
land  is  fertile,  the  pastures  are  large  and  rich,  and  stock  farming 
is  the  special  sphere  of  the  Danish  farmer.  The  export  of  butter 
and  eggs  is  enormous.  The  kingdom  is  poor  in  minerals  and 
entirely  wanting  in  metals.  As  fourth-fifths  of  the  inhabitants 
are  agriculturists,  manufacturing  has  only  a  minor  role,  and 
industrial  establishments  are  mainly  supported  by  the  farming 
and  sea-faring  interests.  Beet  sugar  is  refined,  flour  mills  are 
numerous,  factories  make  sail-cloth,  leather,  and  prepare  tobacco 
and  the  brewing  and  distilhng  interests  are  large.  Copenhagen 
and  Odense,  where  manufacturing  is  mainly  confined,  produce 
also  machinery,  porcelain  and  cloth.  On  the  whole,  Denmark 
supplies  its  own  wants  but  poorly,  and  most  manufactures  are 
imported.  The  rail  and  wagon  roads  are  adequate  and  excellent. 
Race,  Danish.  Religion,  chiefly  Lutheran.  Trade  (1911) — 
imports,  $192,525,000;  exports,  $172,585,000. 

Dutch  East  Indies. — Colonial  possessions  of  the  Nether- 
lands. Area,  584,000  square  miles;  population  (1911),  39,079,000. 
Between  5°  north  latitude  and  11"  south  latitude  and  95°  and 
131°  east  longitude.  Batavia  is  the  capital;  population,  138,000. 
Other  largest  towns  in  Java — Surabaja,  150,000;  Surakarta, 
118,000.  This  group  of  islands  comprises  Java,  Madura,  Suma- 
tra, most  of  Borneo,  Banka,  Billiton,  Celebes,  Rian,  Lingga,  the 
Molucca  Archipelago,  and  the  small  Sunda  Islands.  Java  is 
the  most  important,  and  produces  large  quantities  of  sugar, 
tea,  indigo,  cinchona  bark,  and  tobacco.  Sumatra  is  where  a 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL,   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        163 

tobacco  prized  for  cigar  wrappers  is  grown.  The  Dutch  are 
very  skillful  in  their  colonial  policy,  which  is  based  upon  the 
maxim,  "The  Dutch  colonies  for  the  Dutch."  The  Dutch  protect 
the  natives  from  arbitrary  oppression  and  spoliation,  and  have 
made  the  East  Indies  an  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth  for  the 
mother  country.  The  climate  is  tropical,  but  all  the  islands  are 
mountainous,  and  cool  retreats  are  accessible.  Java  (population, 
30,098,000)  is  the  most  densely  peopled  land  near  the  equator. 
Next  to  Cuba,  it  is  the  largest  producer  of  cane-sugar.  Java 
coffee  is  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  island  is  the  largest 
producer  of  quinine,  and  the  tea  plantations  yield  important 
returns.  Sumatra's  products  are  like  those  of  Java,  but  it  grows  a 
far  larger  amount  of  tobacco.  A  large  part  of  the  spices,  tortoise- 
shell  and  pearl-shell  in  the  world's  trade  comes  from  the  other 
Dutch  islands.  Batavia,  in  Java,  is  the  commercial  center  of  the 
colony.  Four-fifths  of  all  products  are  sent  to  Rotterdam  and 
Amsterdam,  where  they  are  greatly  enhanced  in  value  by 
manufacture  and  preparation  for  market.  Dutch  merchants  sell 
these  products  in  many  lands,  and  send  to  the  East  Indies  great 
quantities  of  cottons  and  other  manufactures;  so  that  the  Dutch 
East  Indies  are  the  best  customers  of  the  Netherlands,  except- 
ing Europe.  Race,  Malayan  stock.  Trade  (1910) — imports, 
$144,664,500;  exports,   $188,575,000. 

Ecuador. — A  South  American  republic.  Area,  116,000  square 
miles;  population,  1,500,000,  (1910  estimate).  Between  2°  north 
latitude  and  5°  south  latitude  and  74°  and  81°  west  longitude. 
Capital,  Quito;  population,  50,000.  Other  cities,  Guayaquil, 
51,000;  Cuenca,  30,000;  Riobamba,  18,000.  Ecuador,  so  called 
because  it  lies  under  the  equator,  illustrates  the  influence  of  alti- 
tudes on  climate  and  production.  On  the  narrow  Pacific  coast 
plain  there  are  tropical  forests,  high  grasses,  rubber,  cacao  and 
many  other  products  of  the  hot  lands.     The  people  live  in  thin- 


164        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

walled  houses.  Only  70  miles  to  the  east  is  the  high  plateau  of 
Ecuador,  between  the  Cordilleran  ranges,  where  the  population 
is  housed  in  stone  and  adol)e  dwellings  amid  fields  of  wheat, 
barley,  potatoes  and  alfalfa.  Further  east  the  land  slopes  to 
another  forested  tropical  plain.  The  lowland  east  of  the  excel- 
lent port  of  Guayaquil  and  the  plain  of  the  Rio  Guayas  are  a 
continuous  garden,  rich  in  tropical  vegetation.  Here  sugar-cane 
is  cultivated,  but  above  all  cacao,  which  is  the  principal  wealth 
of  the  country,  and  Ecuador  is  the  largest  source  of  supply. 
Cacao  is  over  three-fourths  of  the  total  exports.  They  need 
wheat  on  the  coast,  but  the  wheat-fields  of  the  high  plateau 
have  been  inaccessible  because  only  mule  paths  connected  the  high 
with  the  low-lying  regions.  The  railroad  from  Guayaquil  has 
been  pushed  to  the  plateau  of  Quito.  The  eastern  lowlands 
have  rubber  and  gold  still  almost  inaccessible.  The  coast 
Indians  produce  the  famous  Panama  hats  from  the  fine  straw 
of  the  toquilla,  called  Panama  simply  because  they  are  forwarded 
to  market  through  that  port.  There  are  few  other  manufactures 
except  the  products  of  a  small  number  of  woolen  and  cotton 
mills,  saw  mills,  chocolate  works,  and  soap  factories,  chiefly  at 
Guayaquil,  which  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  west  coast  of  South 
America,  and  handles  nearly  all  the  foreign  trade.  The  imports 
are  mainly  manufactures  and  foodstuffs.  Races,  Spanish  Amer- 
ican and  Indian.  Religion,  chiefly  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign 
trade  (1910) —  imports,  $8,024,105;  exports,  $13,666,371. 
Egypt. — A  tributary  state  of  Turkey,  with  a  Khedive  as 
sovereign,  but  in  its  financial  and  economic  administration  under 
the  control  of  Great  Britain.  Between  22"  and  32°  north  lati- 
tude and  24°  and  38°  east  longitude.  Area,  383,000  square  miles, 
including  the  deserts.  The  area  of  the  cultivated  and  densely 
populated  land  is  only  10,000  square  miles,  a  narrow  strip  along 
the  banks  of  the  Nile  about  the  size  of  our  state  of  New  Hampshire. 


UXCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    AVORLD    HISTORY        165 

Population,  including  the  Sudan,  13,687,000.  Capital,  Cairo, 
population,  654,000;  Alexandria,  the  chief  port,  33'2,000;  Port 
Said,  49,000  Egypt  is  a  rooky  and  barren  upland,  with  no 
marked  protuberances  of  the  surface  except  the  mountains 
between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  a  continuation  of  the 
Sahara.  The  broad  channel  of  the  mighty  Nile  traverses  this 
desert,  and  where  it  overflows  its  banks  or  is  carried  by  irrigation 
to  the  land,  it  covers  the  desert  with  luxuriant  subtropical 
flora.  It  is  thus  the  life  of  E  ypt.  The  greater  part  of  its 
waters  comes  through  the  Blue  Nile  from  Abyssinia,  and  the 
fertilizing  silt  is  also  chiefly  derived  from  the  eastern  tributaries 
bringing  rock  waste  from  the  Abyssinian  highlands..  Much 
water  has  gone  to  waste  because  at  flood  time  the  Nile  brings  a 
larger  supply  than  can  be  utilized,  while  at  low  Nile  there  is  not 
sufficient  water  for  the  crops.  This  difficulty  has  been  removed 
by  the  great  dam  built  at  Assuan,  which  impounds  the  surplus 
waters  at  flood,  forming  a  great  lake  which  at  low  Nile  is  run 
through  the  sluices  and  carried  into  the  irrigation  ditches,  so 
that  today  Egypt  is  raising  two  to  three  crops  from  the  same  land 
each  year  where  formerly  only  one  crop  was  possible.  About 
6,000,000  acres  are  under  crop.  Besides  supplying  food  for  its 
millions  of  inhabitants,  Egypt  is  sending  to  American  and 
European  factories  almost  all  the  cotton  it  raises,  a  fiber  of 
peculiar  excellence.  Wheat,  maize  and  onions  are  also  large 
export  crops.  The  live-stock  industry  is  subordinate,  though 
many  dromedaries,  cattle,  goats  and  poultry  are  raised.  There 
is  little  mining,  though  gold  is  now  being  taken  from  the 
mountains  east  of  the  Nile.  Petroleum  has  also  been  discovered 
along  the  Red  Sea  coast.  The  Suez  Canal  made  Egypt  the  con- 
necting link  between  Europe  and  eastern  Asia,  and  stimulated  its 
trade.  Races— 38,'2O0  Greeks,  24,500  Italians,  19,600  British, 
14,200  French,  and  a  few  Austrians  and  Germans.     Religions — 


166       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WOULD    HISTORY 

chiefly  Mohammedan,  10,366,000  Christians,  881,000  Jews.  For 
foreign  trade  (1912  exckiding  specie) — imports,  $129,538,795; 
exports,  $172,861,605. 

France. — A  republic.  Area,  207,127  square  miles;  popula- 
tion (1911),  39,601,000.  Between  42°  and  51°  north  latitude 
and  8°  east  and  4"  west  longitude.  Paris  is  the  capital;  popu- 
lation, 2,888,000.  Other  largest  cities  Marseilles,  550,000; 
Lyons,  523,000;  Bordeaux,  261,000;  Lille,  217,000;  Toulouse, 
149,000;  Havre,  136,000.  With  the  sea  on  three  sides  (Atlantic, 
coasts,  962  miles,  Mediterranean,  300  miles),  the  republic  is 
very  favorably  situated  for  sea  traffic  with  the  Western  world 
and  the  Orient.  The  greater  part  of  France  is  lowland  or  occu- 
pied by  mountains  of  .only  moderate  height.  The  eastern  half, 
on  the  whole,  is  mountainous;  the  western  half  is  level,  a  great 
continuous  plain  stretching  from  the  north  through  the  whole  west 
of  France.  The  soil  is  nearly  everywhere  fertile.  France  has 
over  150  rivers  navigable  for  large  or -small  craft,  the  most  im- 
portant being  the  Seine,  Loire  (navigation  somewhat  difficult), 
the  Charente,  the  lower  Gironde,  the  Adour,  the  Rhone  (of 
little  value  for  navigation),  the  Meuse,  the  Somme  and  the 
Moselle.  Many  excellent  and  convenient  canals  connect  all 
the  principal  rivers.  France  has  the  most  delightful  climate 
in  Europe,  giving  agriculture  a  fortunate  combination  of 
central  and  south  European  conditions  of  farming.  More 
than  half  the  surface  is  under  cultivation,  and  nearly  half 
the  people  live  on  farms,  most  of  them,  so  small  that  France 
has  many  farm  holdings  as  there  are  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  few  good  harbors,  most  of  them  being  river  ports 
or  artificial  harbors,  like  Cherbourg.  The  sea  trade  is  carried 
on  chiefly  through  Marseilles,  Havre,  Bordeaux,  and  Dun- 
kirk. France  is,  next  to  Russia,  the  largest  wheat-growing 
country  of  Europe,  oats  being  the  second  most  important  cereal. 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND   WORLD   HISTORY       167 

The  sugar  beet  and  tobacco  are  great  industrial  crops.  Wine 
is  the  national  beverage,  and  France  is  the  greatest  wine-grow- 
ing country  of  the  world.  All  domestic  animals  are  raised  scien- 
tifically, and  dairy  products  have  high  reputation.  The  fish- 
eries are  very  important,  and  sardine  canning  is  one  of  the  large 
industries.  France  has  much  coal,  but  not  enough  coal  and  iron 
to  supply  the  home  demand.  Manufacturing  is  very  highly 
developed.  Over  1,000,000  persons  are  employed  in  making 
textiles;  French  silks,  cottons  and  woolens  are  unsurpassed. 
Many  classes  of  French  goods,  including  porcelains,  glassware 
and  metal  products,  are  distinguished  for  good  taste,  elegance 
and  finish,  while  other  nations  surpass  France  in  the  cheap 
commodities.  The  Paris  district  is  particularly  noted  for  the 
production  of  articles  de  luxe.  Race,  French  and  1,051,907  for- 
eigners, including  over  12,000  Americans,  Religion,  Roman 
Catholic,  about  600,000  Protestants  and  50,000  Jews.  For- 
eign trade  (1912)— imports,  $1,590,170,000;  exports,  $1,327,- 
270,000. 

French  Indo-China. — French  colonial  possession  in  south 
Asia.  Area,  243,240  square  miles;  population,  (1911),  16,990,000. 
Between  23°  and  9"  north  latitude  and  102°  and  110°  east  longi- 
tude. These  dependencies  include  Cochin-China,  Cambodia, 
Annam,  Laos  and  Tonkin.  Cochin-China  is  the  oldest  and, 
commercially,  the  most  important,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  rich 
alluvial  lands  of  the  Mekong  delta,  covered  with  rice-fields.  The 
far  interior  of  Tonkin  and  Annam  is  mountainous,  but  Cochin- 
China  and  Cambodia  are  almost  entire'y  low  alluvial  lands 
while  the  low  delta  lands  of  Tonkin  extends  far  inland,  and  the 
coastal  belt  in  Annam  is  adapted  for  rice  culture.  Five-sixths  of 
all  the  cultivated  land  is  under  rice,  which  is  the  great  export  crop. 
Tobacco  is  raised  in  Annam  and  Cambodia,  tea  in  the  moimtain- 
ous  parts  of  Annam  and  Tonkin,  and  there  is  a  small  cotton 


168       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAIMA   CANAL   AND   WORLD   HISTORY 

industry  in  Tonkin.  Communications  on  the  great  streams  are 
not  of  the  best  because  they  are  interrupted  by  rapids.  The 
Mekong  affords  good  facilities  for  navigation  to  Sambor,  in 
northern  Cambodia  Tonkin  has  large  coal  measures,  but  only 
300,000  tons  are  mined  annually.  Rice  exports  exceed  500,000 
tons  a  year,  France  taking  most  of  the  crop.  The  chief  towns 
are  Hanoi  (capital),  150,000;  Hue,  50,000;  Pnom-Penh,  50,000; 
and  Saigon,  32,000.  Races — Annamese,  Chinese,  Laos  and 
Malayan.  Roman  Catholic  missions  claimed  420,000  native 
converts.  Foreign  trade  (1910) — imports,  $49,671,000;  exports, 
$58,109,000. 

Germany. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  210,273  square 
miles;  population  (1910),  64,926,000;  capital,  Berlin;  population, 
2,071,257;  Hamburg  (1910),  931,055;  Munich,  596,467;  Bremen, 
247,437;  Nuremberg,  333,142;  Breslau,  514,765;  Cologne,  516,527; 
Frankford-on-Main,  414,576;  Hanover,  302,375;  Dresden 
(1910),  548,300;  Leipzig,  589,850;  Chemnitz,  287,807.  The 
empire  lies  between  47°-56°  north  latitude  and  5°-23°  east  longi- 
tude. The  northern  half  is  a  very  low  plain,  marshy  along  the 
Baltic,  and  rising  gently  to  the  highlands  of  the  southern  half; 
back  of  the  highlands  are  the  Alps,  on  the  southern  edge  of  Ger- 
many. The  Baltic  and  North  Sea  coasts  are  1 ,200  miles  in  length. 
The  harbors  are  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  or  some  distance  inland. 
Hamburg  is  the  third  largest  port  in  the  world,  and  handles  half 
of  Germany's  foreign  trade.  Bremen,  on  the  Weser,  is  the  second 
port,  and  Stettin  and  Danzig  are  the  chief  North  Sea  ports.  The 
rivers  have  great  importance  in  transportation;  immense  sums 
have  been  spent  on  their  improvement,  and  many  canals  cormect 
them.  The  Elbe  is  navigable  clear  across  Germany.  The  con- 
tinental climate  prevails  in  the  east  and  the  oceanic  climate  in 
the  west,  so  that  the  average  temperature  of  eastern  Germany  is 
lower  than  that  of  western  Germany.     About  one-fourth  of  the 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    AVORLD    HISTORY        169 

country  is  covered  with  forests,  which  are  carefully  conserved, 
and  a  tree  must  be  planted  for  every  one  cut  down.  The  growth 
of  manufactures  has  reduced  the  agricultural  population  so  that 
less  than  half  the  people  are  now  farmers.  Germany  has  a  great 
variety  of  agricultural  products,  but  cannot  raise  sufficient  food 
for  her  dense  population.  Nearly  half  the  tilled  lands  in  the  north- 
east and  northwest  are  in  rye,  Germany  being,  next  to  Russia,  the 
largest  grower  of  that  crop.  The  empire  leads  the  world  in  the 
production  of  beet  sugar,  the  sugar  beet  covering  a  large  area. 
Wine  culture  is  almost  wholly  centered  along  the  southwestern 
rivers,  chiefly  the  Rhine.  The  warm  and  fertile  Rhine  plain  be- 
tween Basel  and  Bingen  is  one  of  the  greatest  tobacco  regions  of 
Europe.  "Wheat,  only  half  as  large  a  crop  as  rye,  and  also  barley, 
are  raised  chiefly  in  the  southwestern  highlands.  Oats  are  a  very 
large  crop.  Germany  raises  more  potatoes  than  any  other  country, 
chiefly  in  the  sandy  northern  plain.  The  hops  and  beer  of  Ba- 
varia are  famous.  The  chief  dairy  industry  is  in  the  north, 
especially  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  where  cattle  are  easily  fattened 
and  the  grasses  conduce  to  the  richest  quality  of  milk.  North 
Germany  is  also  most  propitious  for  horse  raising.  The  goat  is 
the  poor  man's  cow,  and  many  thousands  are  raised  in  the 
southern  highlands.  Sheep  have  greatly  decreased,  and  immense 
quantities  of  wool  are  imported  for  the  factories. 

Germany  is  surpassed  only  by  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  as  an  industrial  nation.  Coal  and  iron  are  close  at  hand 
for  German  manufacturers.  The  greatest  attention  is  given  to 
perfecting  technical  processes.  The  most  important  industries 
are  iron  and  steel,  and  their  manufactures,  which  are  j^romoted 
by  the  great  coal-fields  of  the  Ruhr  River,  Saxony  and  the  Saar. 
Textiles  are  the  second  largest  industry,  many  towns  in  Rhine- 
land- Westphalia  and  in  the  Chemnitz  district  of  Saxony  being 
spinning  and  weaving  centers.     The  nation's  success  in  many 


170        UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

other  fields  of  manufacturing  is  very  great.  Transportation  is 
abundant  and  comparatively  cheap,  the  splendid  development 
of  waterways  supplementing  the  numerous  railroads.  The  im- 
ports are  enormous  quantities  of  food  and  raw  materials,  and  the 
exports  are  manufactured  articles.  Race,  Germanic  and  over 
500,000  foreigners,  chiefly  from  other  European  states.  Religion 
—over  37,646,000  Protestants,  over  22,094;000  Roman  Catholics, 
607,000  Israelites.  Foreign  trade  (1912)— imports,  $2,530,140,- 
000;  exports,  $2,185,110,000. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. — Officially,  the  United  King- 
dom. A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  120,979  square  miles. 
Between  49°-60°  north  latitude  and  11°  west-2°  east  longitude. 
Population  (1911),  45,365,000.  -Capital,  London;  population 
(1912,  Greater  London),  7,252,000.  Other  cities,  Glasgow, 
84,000;  Liverpool,  746,000;  Manchester,  714,000;  Birmingham, 
525,000;  Leeds,  445,568;  Sheffield,  454,653;  Dublin,  415,866; 
Belfast,  385,492;  Bristol,  357,059;  Edinburgh,  320,315.  Great 
Britain  consists  of  England,  Scotland  and  Wales. 

An  extensive,  undulating  and  fertile  plain  covers  the  south 
and  east  of  Great  Britain.  Mountains  rise  in  the  north  and  west, 
covering  two-fifths  of  the  total  surface.  The  mountains  of  north 
Scotland  are  mostly  destitute  of  cultivation.  Most  of  Ireland 
is  an  undulating  interior  plain,  with  mountain  ranges  near  the 
sea  surrounding  it.  Most  of  the  plain  is  very  fertile,  but  one- 
seventh  of  Ireland  is  covered  by  bog  and  moor.  England  has 
fifty  rivers  navigable  by  large  or  small  vessels,  chief  of  which  is 
the  Thames,  commercially  the  most  important  river  in  the  world, 
although  only  220  miles  long.  Scottish  rivers  are  of  little 
commercial  importance,  but  Ireland  has  many  navigable  streams, 
among  which  the  Shannon  is  navigable  for  almost  its  entire 
length.  In  England  there  are  over  2,500  miles  of  canals,  and 
a  great  ship  canal  connects  Manchester  with  the  sea.     The 


UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        171 

climate  is  oceanic  and  mild  for  the  high  northern  latitude.  The 
abundant  rainfall  is  most  copious  in  the  west.  Severe  storms 
in  autumn  and  winter  sometimes  do  great  damage  on  the  coasts. 

Agriculture  is  not  so  important  as  manufacturing.  Only 
18  per  cent,  of  the  land  is  plowed.  Cereals  in  wide  areas  find 
the  climate  too  cold  or  too  humid,  but  conditions  are  extremely 
favorable  for  natural  meadows,  and  nearly  half  the  farming 
lands  are  in  pastures  or  hay.  No  other  nation  has  finer  breeds 
of  cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  Still  the  country  needs  to  import 
enormous  quantities  of  dairy  products,  and  the  imports  of  wheat 
and  flour  have  increased  70  per  cent,  in  a  century.  Maize  does 
not  ripen,  and  oats  is  the  most  important  cereal  crop.  The 
fisheries  employ  107,000  men  and  yield  $50,000,000  worth  of 
fish  every  year. 

The  mineral  riches  are  very  great,  far  exceeding  in  value  the 
agricu.tural  products.  The  coal-fields,  with  about  4,000  mines, 
are  among  Great  Britain's  most  valuable  possessions.  The  most 
important  metal  is  iron,  the  mines  being  situated  near  or  among 
the  coal-fields.  The  nation,  next  to  the  United  States,  is  the 
largest  producer  of  iron  and  steel.  More  salt  is  mined  than  in 
any  other  country,  and  the  tin  mines  produce  annually  about 
15,000  tons  of  ore. 

The  textile  industries  are  first  in  the  list  of  manufactures,  the 
greatest  centers  of  the  cotton  industry  being  around  Manchester, 
Derby,  Nottingham,  Glasgow,  Paisley  and  Belfast.  About 
600,000,000  pounds  of  wool  are  absorbed  annually  by  the  woolen 
industries.  Linen  manufacture  is  very  ancient  in  Ireland,  and 
is  one  of  its  leading  industries.  The  silk  industry  does  not  meet 
French  competition  nor  supply  the  home  demand  The  metal  in- 
dustries form  the  second  great  department  of  manufactures.  Be- 
sides steel  rails,  armor  plates  and  steel  for  bridges,  railroads,  ships, 
etc.,  machinery  is  made  in  over  2,000  machine  shops,  producing 


17'i        UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

wares  of  every  kind  that  are  marketed  all  over  the  world. 
Earthenware  and  glass,  chemicals,  leather,  and,  in  fact,  all 
branches  of  manufacturing  are  of  the  highest  development. 

Great  Britain  is  the  leading  commercial  nation,  as  its  trade 
is  world-wide  in  the  fullest  sense.  The  railroads  are  solidly 
constructed,  usually  with  double  tracks,  and  the  speed  of  the 
trains  is  the  highest  in  Europe.  The  country's  activities  are 
wonderfully  st  mulated  by  enormous  capital,  which  works  not 
only  at  home  but  also  all  over  the  world.  About  half  of  the 
exterior  investments  are  in  the  British  colonies,  and  the  other 
half  in  foreign  lands,  bringing  home  annual  dividends  of  about 
over  $4-00,000,000. 

Races — English,  Scotch,  Welsh,  Irish  and  266,000  foreigners. 
Religions — Established  Church,  about  19,000,000;  Scottish 
Church,  about  1,500,000;  Protestant  Djssenters,  6,000,000; 
Roman  Catholics,  5,500,000;  Israelites,  50,000.  Foreign  trade 
(1912)— imports  $3,724,482,570;  exports,  $2,996,359,535. 

Greece. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  25,224  square  miles. 
Population,  (1907),  2,631,000.  Between  35{'-40°  north  latitude 
and  20°-20°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Athens;  population, 
167,000.  Other  towns,  Pira-us  (port  of  Athens),  71,000;  Patras, 
37,958;  Trikala,  21,149;  Corfu,  27,000.  The  kingdom  includes 
many  islands  of  the  iEgean  and  Ionian  seas.  Greece  has  two 
main  divisions,  northern  Greece  and  the  Morea,  connected  only 
by  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Corinth.  Both  parts  are  covered  by 
mountains  and  hills,  the  only  considerable  plain  being  that 
of  Thessaly,  in  the  north.  The  mountains  are  mostly  barren  and 
arid,  but  the  islands,  though  mountainous,  are  tolerably  fertile. 
The  rivers  are  merely  coast  streams,  and  Greece  is  not  richly 
supplied  with  water.  The  irregularity  of  the  coast  line,  affording 
many  good  harbors,  is  of  much  importance.  The  coasts  and 
islands  have  a  mild  climate,  but  the  isolated  mountain  gorges 


UNCLE    SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       173 

and  valleys  suffer  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Only  19 
per  cent,  of  the  area  is  cultivated,  and  agriculture  is  backward 
and  does  not  produce  sufficient  cereals  for  home  consumption. 
The  best  farming  region  is  the  highly  fertile  plain  of  Thessaly, 
from  which  considerable  wheat  is  derived.  Barley,  maize  and 
rice  are  also  important  crops.  The  conditions  are  favorable 
for  tobacco  culture,  and  a  large  part  of  the  so-called  Egyptian 
cigarettes  is  made  from  the  tobacco  of  Greece.  Stock  raising 
is  insignificant,  sheep  and  goats  take  the  place  of  cows,  and  much 
cheese  is  made  from  sheep's  milk.  Lead,  zinc  and  manganese 
are  m'ned.  The  household  industries  are  most  important,  but 
cotton  and  woolen  cloths  are  produced  in  a  number  of  towns. 
Zante  and  some  other  regions  produce  the  famous  Zante  currant, 
which  is  the  chief  export.  Communications  are  j^oor  and  in- 
sufficient. 830  miles  of  railways  are  operated.  Races — the 
Greeks  are  descended  from  the  ancient  Greeks,  with  Illyrian 
and  other  admixtures;  Albanians,  Wallachians,  Armenians, 
Turks,  etc.  Religion— Greek  Orthodox,  2,000,000  other  Chris- 
tians, 6,000  Israehtes,  24,000  Mohammedans.  Trade  (1911)— 
imports,  $31., 697,485;  exports,  $28,180,530. 

Greenland. — The  largest  island  of  the  world.  Area,  about 
515,000  square  miles,  or  one-sixth  as  large  as  the  United  States; 
area  of  coast-lands  not  covered  by  glaciers,  about  35,000  square 
miles.  Between  60'-83°  40'  north  latitude  and  20''-75''  west 
longitude.  The  inhabited  parts  of  the  west  and  east  coast  are 
occupied  by  Denmark  as  far  as  74°  north  latitude  on  the  west 
and  67"  north  latitude  on  the  east  coast.  Principal  town 
Godthaab.  Population,  13.000  (Eskimos  and  a  few  Danes) 
on  the  Danish  west  coast,  about  500  on  the  Danish  east  coast; 
about  500  (Arctic  h'ghlanders)  in  northwest  Greenland  between 
Cape  York  and  Etah.  The  interior  is  covered  by  an  ice-cap 
thousands  of  feet  in  thickness,  the  coasts  are  mountainous,  with 


174        UNCLE    SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL  AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

deep  fiords,  and  many  glaciers  move  down  them  from  the  inland 
ice.  The  ends  of  the  glaciers  at  the  sea  edge  break  off  as  icebergs, 
and  many  float  southward  to  the  tracks  of  trans-Atlantic  steam- 
ers. The  coastal  vegetation  is  scanty,  chiefly  mosses  and  lichens, 
with  here  and  there  patches  of  grass.  The  few  stunted  trees  in 
south  Greenland  rarely  grow  higher  than  a  man's  head.  The 
chief  animals  are  the  musk-ox,  reindeer,  Arctic  fox,  polar  bear, 
and  the  coast  waters  are  frequented  by  seals,  walruses,  fish, 
some  whales,  and  countless  numbers  of  eider  ducks  and  other 
birds.  The  natives  struggle  hard  to  gain  a  livelihood.  Seal 
blubber  is  transformed  into  grain  oil,  and  seal,  polar  bear  and 
white  fox  skins,  eider  down  and  a  little  whalebone  are  collected. 
Coal  is  found,  but  the  only  mineral  of  importance  yet  worked  is 
cryolite,  the  mines  at  Ivigtut  being  the  only  known  deposits  of 
commercial  importance.  This  mineral  is  mined  by  Americans 
under  contract  with  the  Danish  government.  Danish  trading 
stations  supply  the  Eskimos  with  commodities  in  exchange  for 
the  collection  of  skins,  etc.,  which  they  make.  In  1911  imports 
from  Denmark,  $  1 ,643,550 ;  exports  to  Denmark,  $733,300.  Trade 
in  Greenland  is  a  state  monopoly. 

Guatemala. — A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area,  46,774 
square  miles;  population  estimated  in  1910,  1,992,000.  Between 
13°-18°  north  latitude  and  89"-93''  west  longitude.  Capital, 
Guatemala;  population,  100,000.  Guatemala  has  larger  busi- 
ness relations  with  the  rest  of  the  world  than  any  other  Central 
American  repubKc.  Most  of  it  is  an  elevated  plateau,  with  a 
broad  frontage  on  the  Pacific  and  a  very  short  Atlantic  coast  line. 
Maize  and  black  beans,  the  chief  food  staples  in  Central  America, 
are  grown  everywhere,  and  coffee,  the  great  export  crop,  thrives 
from  the  Pacific  to  the  center  of  the  republic.  Much  sugar  made 
from  the  sugar-cane  is  consumed  at  home,  but  little  is  exported. 
Cotton-fields  and  sheep  pastures  on  the  higher  land  supply  fiber 


UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       175 

for  spinneis  and  weavers,  and  cattle  scattered  over  the  plateaus 
yield  hides  for  export.  ^Nlost  of  the  commodities  required  by 
the  people,  except  textiles  and  flour,  are  the  products  of  home 
industry.  A  railroad  from  the  Atlantic  ascends  the  valley  of 
the  Motagua  River  to  the  city  of  Guatemala,  which  is  also 
connected  by  rail  with  the  Pacific  port  of  San  Jose.  Livingston 
and  Puerto  Barrios,  the  Atlantic  ports,  shij)  much  coffee.  Races, 
Spanish-American  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic. 
Trade  (1911)— imports,  $6,514,4.'21;  exports,  $10,981, 7'24. 

Guiana,  British. — A  British  colony  in  South  America. 
Area,  109,000  square  miles;  population  (1911),  305,000.  Between 
l°-8"  north  latitude  and  57°-m°  west  longitude.  Capital, 
Georgetown;  population,  53,176.  The  low  coastal  plain,  hot 
and  fertile,  is  covered  with  plantations,  cultivation  being  con- 
fined chiefly  to  this  narrow  zone,  where  most  of  the  population 
lives.  These  lowlands  were  diked  and  are  extensive  enough  to 
form  an  important  factor  in  the  rice  production  of  the  world. 
Further  inland  the  country  becomes  hilly  and  mountainous, 
with  wide  forest  areas  and  considerable  gold.  The  short  Dem- 
erara  railroad  was  the  first  to  be  built  in  South  America.  It  was 
constructed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  sugar  industry,  which,  with, 
its  by-products,  rum  and  molasses,  was  long  the  great  industry 
of  the  three  Guianas.  Cheap  sugar  at  last  seriously  injured 
the  industry,  and  the  plantations  also  suffered  from  encroach- 
ments of  the  sea.  Many  planters  abandoned  sugar  for  tobacco 
and  rice.  The  rice  plantations  now  cover  38,000  acres.  Gold, 
rubber,  sugar  and  rice  are  sent  to  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  the  imports  consisting  of  foodstuff's  and  general  manufac- 
tures. Races — 6  per  cent,  whites,  40  per  cent.  East  Indian 
coolies,  41  per  cent,  negroes,  Chinese,  mixed  breeds  and  Indians. 
Foreign  trade  (1911-12)— imports,  $8,932,870;  exports,  $10- 
864,000. 


176      rxcLE  sam's  Panama  canal  and  world  history 

Guiana,  Dutch. — A  colony  of  the  Netherlands  in  South 
America,  east  of  British  Guiana.  Area,  50,000  square  miles; 
population  (1911),  80, "^SS.  Capital,  Paramaribo;  population, 
33,000.  The  physical  features  are  like  those  of  British  Guiana 
(which  see).  In  both  Dutch  and  French  Guiana  sugar  cultiva- 
tion is  considerably  smaller  than  in  British  Guiana,  and  primitive 
methods  are  employed  for  making  sugar.  Considerable  cacao 
is  produced.  The  commercial  center  is  Paramaribo,  and  nearly 
the  entire  trade  is  with  the  Netherlands.  The  gold  exports  are 
over  $500,000  a  year.  Races,  chiefly  Dutch,  also  negroes  and 
Indians.  Foreign  trade  (1910) — imports,  $3,093,600;  exports, 
$4,500,000. 

Guiana,  French. — A  penal  colony  of  France,  east  of  Dutch 
Guiana,  in  South  America.  Area,  31,000  square  miles;  popula- 
tion, (1911),  49,000.  Capital,  Cayenne;  population,  10,600.  A 
few  thousand  French  convicts  most  of  them  free,  live  in  the 
colony.  It  differs  from  British  and  Dutch  Guiana,  as  its  200 
miles  of  coast  lands  are  comparatively  high,  and  its  islands 
supply  phosphates  for  export.  It  is  little  developed,  and  has 
comparatively  few  plantations.  Cacao  grows  wild,  and  its 
cultivation  was  long  important,  but  has  declined  because  the 
people  are  neglecting  agriculture  for  gold  mining,  which,  with 
sugar  and  coffee,  is  its  chief  interest.  Races — French,  Indian 
and  negro.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  France.  Foreign  trade 
(1910)— imports,  $2,442,205;  exports,  $2,313,435. 

Haiti. — A  French  colony  (1697-1801).  A  negro  republic 
on  the  island  of  Haiti,  West  Indies.  Area,  10,204  square  miles; 
population  (1910),  2,029,000.  Between  18°-20°  north  latitude 
and  71°-75°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Port  au  Prince,  population, 
61,000;  Cape  Haitien,  29,000;  Aux  Cayes,  25,000.  Very  moun- 
tainous; interior  communications  so  poor  that  the  people  usually 
prefer  to  take  the  sea  route  to  other  parts  of  the  coasts.     Climate, 


UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL  AND    WORLD   HISTORY        177 

tropical,  tempered  by  the  northeast  trade  winds.  Coffee  is  the 
chief  product  and  export,  and  is  superior  in  quahty,  though 
Httle  attention  is  paid  to  its  cultivation.  Logwood  and  cacao 
are  other  important  exports.  The  coarse  cotton  textiles, 
breadstuffs  and  kerosene,  which  form  most  of  the  imports,  are 
largely  supplied  by  the  United  States.  Race,  French-speaking 
negroes.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade  (1910) — 
imports,  $7,681,746;  exports,  $15,475,331. 

Guam. — A  Pacific  colony  of  the  United  States.  The  largest, 
most  populous  and  most  southern  of  the  Marianne  Islands, 
a  group  lying  along  145°  east  longitude,  between  13°-20°  north 
latitude.  Area,  207  square  miles.  The  highest  land  is  only 
1,274  feet  above  the  sea.  A  mountain  chain  extends  near  the 
southeastern  and  southern  coasts,  the  rest  of  the  island  being 
mainly  a  plateau  heavily  forested  with  cocoanut  groves,  maize, 
taro  and  garden  truck  planted  in  narrow  strips  along  the  sea. 
The  interior  of  the  island  has  not  been  cultivated,  but  almost  the 
entire  southern  half  is  well  adapted  for  cattle  ranches,  and  the 
northern  half  for  coffee,  cacao  and  cocoanuts.  The  climate  is 
healthful,  and  on  the  whole  pleasant,  the  heat  being  tempered 
by  sea  breezes.  Rainfall  is  heavy  between  June  and  December, 
and  the  island  is  occasionally  visited  by  severe  typhoons.  The 
inhabitants  are  the  native  Chamorros  (devout  Catholics),  some 
immigrants  from  other  islands  and  the  American  contingent. 
The  population  was  12,517  according  to  the  census  of  1910,  of 
whom  three-fifths  live  in  the  town  of  Agana.  Other  towns  in 
order  of  size  and  importance  are  Sume,  Agat,  Merizo,  Inarajam, 
Umatac,  Piti  and  Sinajana,  ranging  in  population  from  650  to 
150.  By  far  the  most  valuable  crop  is  the  cocoanut  (copra), 
followed  by  sugar,  coffee  and  cacao.  The  commerce  is  very 
small,  but  the  development  of  copra-drying  promises  to  be  a 
source  of  prosperity. 


178       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Hawaii. — Or  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Annexed  to  the  United 
States  in  1898,  and  organized  as  a  Territory  in  1900.  Include 
eleven  islands,  eight  of  which  are  inhabited.  In  the  Pacific 
(Polynesia),  between  18°-23°  north  latitude  and  154°-16r 
west  longitude.  Area,  6,449  square  miles;  population,  191,909. 
Capital,  Honolulu;  population,  39?306.  The  islands  are  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  by  ocean  channels  varying  in  width  from 
6  to  61  miles.  In  order  of  size,  the  inhabited  islands  are:  Hawaii, 
2,000,000  acres;  Maui,  400,000;  Oahu  (seat  of  government), 
360,000;  Kauai,  350,000;  Molokai  (partly  leper  settlement), 
200,000;  Lanai,  100,000;  Niihau,  70,000;  Kahulawe,  30,000. 
Small  as  they  are,  they  embrace  about  as  much  territory  as  all 
the  rest  of  Polynesia.  Oahu,  the  most  populous  and  important 
commercially,  is  as  large  as  the  Society  group.  Maui  has  about 
the  same  area  as  the  Marquesas  group,  and  the  island  of  Hawaii, 
with  the  remaining  islands,  is  nearly  as  large  as  all  the  other 
groups  of  Polynesia. 

Hawaii  is  at  the  cross-roads  of  the  Pacific,  where  vessels  in  the 
American-Japanese  and  American-Australian  trades  put  into 
port.  The  group  is  also  the  starting-point  for  expeditions  to 
Bering  Strait  and  the  South  Sea.  The  geographical  position 
of  Hawaii  in  the  central  Pacific  thus  attracts  much  shipping. 
The  effective  area  of  Honolulu  harbor  is  131^  acres.  Pearl 
harbor  a  few  miles  west  of  Honolulu  is  reserved  for  naval  pur- 
poses. Its  entrance  is  4^  miles  long,  500  feet  wide  and  35  feet 
deep.  The  group  is  purely  volcanic,  rising  abruptly  from  deep 
water,  and  containing  the  loftiest  summits  of  any  oceanic  islands 
(Mauna  Loa  and  Mauna  Kea,  in  Hawaii,  nearly  14,000  feet). 
The  volcanic  forces  are  extinct  in  the  west,  but  very  active 
in  the  east.  Below  the  mountains  are  fertile  plains  and  valleys. 
All  the  soils  are  derived  from  basaltic  lavas.  Sedimentary  soils, 
covering  the  levels  bordering  the  sea,  are  very  deep  and  rich. 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        179 

The  dark  red  soils  are  immediately  above  the  sedimentary  flats 
and  lowlands,  and  have  high  fertility.  The  light  red  soils  on 
the  uplands,  near  the  mountains,  are  of  small  depth  and  less 
fertile.  The  climate  is  about  ten  degrees  cooler  than  that  of  any 
other  land  in  the  same  latitude.  The  windward  side  of  the 
momitains  has  abundant  rain,  but  there  is  much  less  on  the 
leeward  side,  where  most  of  the  plantations  are  situated.  The 
islands  are  wholly  dependent  upon  agriculture.  Cane-sugar 
employs  most  of  the  capital  and  labor,  furnishes  most  of  the 
exports  and  maintains  most  of  the  people.  Nearly  all  the 
plantations  have  their  own  mills  and  manufacture  all  the  raw 
sugar  produced  from  their  cane.  The  quantity  exported  in  1912 
was  523,308  tons.  The  yield  of  sugar  per  acre  is  from  6,000  to 
over  9,000  pounds.  Rice,  growing  on  the  lowest  flats  and  close 
to  the  sea,  has  the  second  place.  The  rice-growers  are  almost 
wholly  Chinese.  The  coffee  berry  grows  wild  and  is  cultivated 
on  the  four  larger  islands. ,-  The  production  now  attains  50,000 
bags  annually.  Chinese  gardeners  supply  Honolulu  with  nearly 
all  its  vegetables.  Bananas  and  pineapples  are  the  only  fruits 
figuring  in  the  exports.  The  pineapple  industry  is  the  second  in 
importance.  1,000,000  cans  exported  in  1912.  The  forest 
areas  are  considerable,  but  have  suft'ered  great  reduction. 
Sufficient  cattle  are  maintained  for  beef  and  milk,  but  the  chief 
supply  of  butter  is  by  importation.  Most  of  the  plantation 
labor  is  supplied  by  Chinese  and  Japanese.  The  native  Hawai- 
ians  incline  to  work  for  themselves  rather  than  to  take  service 
with  employers,  and  the  Portuguese  immigrants,  energetic  and 
thrifty  people,  are  mostly  engaged  in  horticulture.  The  Ameri- 
can, British  and  Germans  control  the  planting  and  commercial 
interests,  which  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  American  settlers  and 
their  descendants.  About  three-fourths  of  the  imports  come 
from  the  United  States.     Raw  sugar  is  about  niacteen-twentieths 


180        UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

of  the  exports,  and  nearly  all  of  it  is  sent  to  California  refineries. 
Trade  (1912)— exports,  $57,759,850;  imports,  $31,268,800. 

Honduras. — A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area,  46,300 
square  miles;  population  (1910),  553,000.  Between  13-^7'^ 
north  latitude  and  83''-87"'  west  longitude.  Capital,  Tegucigalpa, 
in  the  gold  and  silver  region;  population,  35,000.  It  is  second 
in  size  of  the  Central  American  republics,  but  though 
rich  in  resources,  has  little  commercial  development.  The 
population  cannot  supply  sufficient  labor  for  so  large  an  area, 
transportation  facilities  are  very  poor,  and  fully  half  of  the 
country  is  still  a  virgin  waste.  The  interior  plateau  maintains 
many  cattle,  hides  and  live  animals  being  important  exports. 
The  long  Caribbean  coast  produces  many  bananas  and  other 
fruit  for  United  States  consumption,  and  the  Atlantic  forests 
abound  with  fine  tropical  timber.  Gold  and  silver  are  the  leading 
exports,  though  the  mining  development  is  small.  The  United 
States  supplies  a  large  part  of  the  imports,  in  which  textiles 
and  hardware  are  prominent.  The  Atlantic  ports,  Truxillo, 
Ceiba  and  Puerto  Cortez,  have  connections  with  the  United 
States.  The  Pacific  coast,  only  forty  miles  long,  has  the  fine 
natural  harbor  of  Amapala,  from  which  the  metals  are  shipped. 
Races,  Spanish-American  and  Indians.  Religion,  Roman  Cath- 
olic.    Trade   (1911)— imports,  $3,560,939;  exports,  $3,024,726. 

India. — A  part  of  the  British  Empire.  Area,  1,883,627 
square  miles;  includes  Upper  and  Lower  Burma;  population, 
319,140,569.  Between  7^-36°  north  latitude  and  62^-104°  east 
longitude.  The  capital  is  Delhi,  population,  233,000.  Calcutta, 
population,  1,216,514;  Bombay  972,930,  Madras,  517,535;  Haid- 
erabad,  499.840 ;  Lucknow,  264,049 ;  Rangoon,  289,432.  Executive 
authority  is  vested  in  the  Viceroy,  appointed  by  the  crown. 
India  has  three  distinctly  defined  physical  regions:  the  Himalaya 
Mountain  district,  the  North  Indian  Plain,  and  the  Plateau  of 


UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        181 

llie  Deccan.  The  colossal  ranges  of  the  Himalayas  stretch  for 
1,500  miles  along  the  north  of  the  country.  They  divide  India 
from  the  plateau  of  central  Asia  South  of  the  Himalayas  is 
the  Great  North  Indian  Plain,  well  watered  and  for  the  most 
part  well  cultivated.  East  of  the  Indus  delta,  however,  is  the 
Thar  Desert,  which  stretches  away  almost  to  the  base  of  the 
Himalayas.  The  triangular  plateau  of  the  Deccan,  from  1,600 
to  3,000  feet  high,  occupies  the  south  of  the  country.  India  has 
great  rivers,  but  the  only  very  important  ones  for  navigation 
are  the  smoothly  flowing  Ganges  and  the  Irawadi,  of  Burma. 
The  Indus  and  the  streams  of  the  Deccan  are  too  impetuous  for 
convenient  navigation. 

India  has  many  climates,  but  all,  except  regions  high  among 
the  Himalayas  or  in  favored  parts  of  the  Deccan,  may  be  called 
more  or  less  tropical.  Only  two  seasons  are  recognized — the 
dry  and  the  rainy  season.  The  southwest  monsoon  in  summer 
brings  an  enormous  quantity  of  water  vapor,  with  which  it 
drenches  the  Western  Ghats,  and  usually  has  enough  left  for 
the  interior  highlands;  but  sometimes  this  monsoon  does  not 
continue  long  enough  to  give  the  Plateau  of  the  Deccan  suffi- 
cient rain.  Then  crops  fail,  and  a  famine  may  ensue  resulting 
in  the  death  of  many  thousands.  Many  millions  of  the  inhabi- 
tants being  Brahmanists,  they  are  strict  vegetarians,  and  the 
mortality  in  time  of  famine  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  they 
will  not  kill  their  domestic  animals  for  food. 

Three-fifths  of  the  people  are  farmers.  They  carry  on  agri- 
culture in  a  primitive  way,  and  fertilizers  are  little  used,  but 
great  irrigation  systems  have  been  developed  in  large  districts. 
Rice,  the  principal  food,  can  be  cultivated  only  in  well-watered 
regions  such  as  Bengal,  the  coasts  of  the  Deccan  and  the  valleys. 
Wheat  is  sown  chiefly  in  the  drier  northwest  (Punjab),  and 
though  it  is  an  uncertain  crop,  it  is  often  raised  in  enormous 


182        UNCLE    SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

quantities,  much  of  it  being  sent  to  Europe.  Next  in  importance 
are  the  fiher  crops.  India  sends  a  great  deal  of  cotton  to  China 
and  Japan,  in  addition  to  the  supply  consumed  in  its  manufac- 
tures. The  fiber  is  shorter  than  our  staple,  and  inferior  in 
quality.  Jute,  cultivated  in  the  damp  warm  climate  of  Bengal, 
holds  second  rank  among  the  fibers.  Opium  is  a  large  export, 
chiefly  to  China.  The  teas  of  India  and  Ceylon  have  injured 
the  Chinese  tea  trade  in  the  British  Empire,  and  are  invading 
many  other  markets  Animal  raising  is  not  important;  cows 
give  very  little  milk,  but  zebus  (an  Indian  variety  of  cattle) 
are  used  for  draft  purposes  The  yield  of  salt  is  large,  and  coal 
mining  is  constantly  increasing.  Little  else  is  done  to  develop 
India's  mineral  wealth.  India  has  been  famous  for  centuries 
for  its  shawls,  textile  fabrics,  weapons,  etc.,  and  in  recent  years 
it  has  developed  modern  manufactures,  such  as  tanneries,  ship- 
yards, iron  foundries,  etc.  Still,  the  home  supply  of  manufac- 
tures is  inadequate,  and  an  enormous  quantity  of  them  is  im- 
ported. Religions— 207,700,000  Hindus  (Brahmanists),  57,300,- 
000  Mohammedans,  9,300,000  nature  worshipers,  8,500,000 
Buddhists,  2,923,000  Christians,  1  900,000  Sikhs.  Foreign  trade 
(fisca^  year  1911-1912)— imports,  $450,000,000;  exports,  $719,- 
334,000. 

Italy. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  110,684  square  miles; 
population  (1911),  34,686,583.  Between  37"  and  47"  north 
latitude  and  6°  and  19°  east  longitude.  The  1911  census  gave  the 
following  results:  Capital,  Rome,  population,  538,634;  Naples, 
723,208;  Milan,  599,266;  Turin,  427,733;  Palermo,  341,456; 
Genoa,  272,077;  Florence,  232,860;  Venice,  160,727.  The 
northern  part  of  Italy  is  continental  and  the  southern  part  con- 
sists of  a  peninsula  and  a  number  of  islands,  including  Sicily, 
Sardinia  and  Elba.  The  continental  portion  is  the  great  fertile 
plain  of  the  Po  River.     Hemmed  in  between  the  Alps  and  the 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY       183 

Apennines,  this  plain  is  the  scene  of  Italy's  greatest  industrial 
and  agricultural  activity.  The  Apennines  are  the  backbone  of 
the  peninsula,  extending  down  its  center.  Most  of  the  peninsula 
is  well  watered,  but  it  has  almost  no  large  rivers.  Agriculture 
is  in  a  backward  condition,  and  the  peasantry  are  very  poor. 
The  farm  lands  are  usually  held  in  large  estates,  and  leased  in 
parcels  to  the  peasants.  This  policy  is  unfavorable  for  high 
tillage.  Wheat  is  the  chief  crop,  and  much  of  it  is  used  with 
Black  Sea  imports  in  preparing  macaroni,  of  which  Italy  makes 
enormous  quantities.  The  wine  crop  is  next  in  value  to  wheat, 
most  of  it  and  the  best  qualities  coming  from  the  south.  Olives 
and  olive  oil  are  exported  to  a  certain  extent.  Italy  is  the  only 
country  of  Europe  raising  large  quantities  of  rice.  The  produc- 
tion of  raw  silk  is  the  largest  in  Europe.  Most  of  the  mulberry 
trees  feeding  the  silkworms  are  on  the  Lombardy  plain,  while 
raw  silk  is  sent  to  all  the  leading  nations,  silk  manufactures  being 
of  much  smaller  importance. 

Italy  is  rich  in  useful  minerals,  but  very  poor  in  coal,  so  that 
a  great  deal  must  be  imported.  The  sulphur  mines  of  Sicily 
supply  part  of  the  world's  demand.  Great  quantities  of  salt 
are  obtained  from  mines  or  by  evaporating  sea- water.  Iron  ore  is 
obtained  chiefly  from  Elba,  but  most  of  it  is  exported,  as  there  is 
little  development  of  iron  manufactures.  The  famous  marble 
of  Carrara  and  Massa  finds  a  wide  market.  Lack  of  coal  is 
unfavorable  for  the  development  of  industries,  but  manufac- 
turing enterprises  are  slowly  growing.  Races,  Italian  and 
61,415  foreigners.  ReHgions — 62,000  Protestants,  38,000  Israel- 
ites, the  rest  Roman  Catholics.  Foreign  trade  (1911  estimated) 
—imports,   $648,112;  exports,  $418,623. 

Jamaica. — ^The  largest  colony  of  Great  Britain  in  the  West 
Indies.  Population  (1911),  831,383.  Between  17°  and  19° 
north  latitude  and  76°  and  79°  west  longitude.    Capital,  Kings- 


184        UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

ton;  population,  50,000.  A  mountain  range  forms  the  axis 
of  the  island,  extending  through  it  from  east  to  west,  the  high- 
est peak  rising  to  7,400  feet.  Climate,  tropical,  with  cooler 
temperature  in  the  highlands.  All  tropical  productions  are 
grown  to  perfection.  The  sugar  plantations  were  once  famous, 
but  many  planters  have  abandoned  the  industry,  owing  to 
low  sugar  prices;  and  fruits,  chiefly  bananas  and  oranges,  now 
form  nearly  half  the  exports.  Cofl^ee,  rum,  sugar,  pimento 
and  Jamaica  ginger  are  also  important  exports.  The  highways 
are  fairly  good,  and  three  railroads  serve  the  eastern  half  of 
the  island,  but  Jamaica  is  still  far  behind  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 
in  economic  development.  Races — negro,  mixed  breeds,  white — 
only  2.5  per  cent,  of  the  whole — and  East  Indians  about  the 
same  proportion.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $14,327,765; 
exports,  $14,740,335. 

Japan. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  160,969  square  miles; 
population  (1912),  52,200,679  (with  Formosa).  Between  22°- 
51°  north  latitude  and  120°-155°  east  longitude.  Capital, 
Tokio,  population,  2,200,000;  Osaka,  1,230,000;  Kioto,  450,000; 
Nagoya,  400,000;  Kobe,  378,000;  Yokohama,  399,000;  Hiro- 
shima, 150,000;  Nagasaki,  180,000.  Like  Great  Britain,  Japan 
is  an  island  kingdom.  Important  international  events  of  recent 
years  have  placed  Japan  in  the  first  rank  among  nations — in 
the  peace  settlement  between  Japan  and  Russia  (1905)  of  the 
contentions  that  caused  Japan  to  make  war  on  Russia,  Japan 
was  by  treaty  ceded  the  half  of  Sakhalin  Island  from  the  50th 
parallel  south.  In  China  her  concessions  in  this  settlement 
were  varied  and  valuable  and  her  prestige  in  that  nation  is 
greatly  increased.  The  empire  consists  of  four  large  islands 
and  a  great  number  (nearly  4,000)  of  smaller  ones.  These 
islands  are  mountainous,  and  a  few  volcanic  summits,  such  as 
Fusiyama,  reach  a  height  of  12,000  feet  or  more.    Narrow  plains 


UNCLE   SAM  S    PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       1 85 

along  the  coasts  and  fertile  valleys  among  the  mountains  are 
sources  of  largest  wealth.  There  are  no  great  rivers,  but  numer- 
ous mountain  torrents  pour  down  the  slopes  with  short  but 
rapid  courses  to  the  sea.  An  extensive  system  of  canals  pro- 
vides irrigation  that  supplements  the  rainfall.  The  climate  is 
very  moist,  and  is  cooler  than  that  of  countries  of  the  same 
latitude  in  Europe  or  North  Africa.  Violent  volcanic  outbursts 
sometimes  occur,  and  the  country  is  liable  to  frequent  and 
disasti'ous  earthquakes.  The  last  very  destructive  calamity  of 
this  nature,  the  Nayoga-Gifu  earthquake  of  1891,  killed  ne;irly 
0,000  people,  injured  ^20.000,  and  destroyed  130,000  houses. 
Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation,  and  is  carried  on 
with  painstaking  minuteness.  Large  areas  in  the  mountain 
regions  cannot  be  tilled,  but  many  mountains  are  cleared  of 
forest  and  cultivated  to  their  very  tops,  and  bare  rocks  are 
covered  with  soil  brought  from  a  distance.  All  the  lands  belong 
to  the  state,  and  are  leased  to  the  farmers,  who  pay  a  land  tax. 
The  chief  crop  is  rice  of  superior  fjuality.  The  various  cereals 
and  vegetables  are  grown  with  success,  and  cotton  is  raised  in 
the  south.  The  mulberry  thrives,  and  th?  largest  island  pro- 
duces a  great  deal  of  raw  silk.  Tlie  value  of  this  export  alone 
attains  $50,000,000  annually.  From  an  export  point  of  view, 
tea,  which  is  scattered  over  large  areas  in  the  three  southern 
islands,  is  most  important.  The  United  States  buys  great 
quantities  of  Japanese  tea.  The  most  important  members  of 
the  animal  kingdom  are  silkworms,  bees  and  poultry.  As  the 
Japanese  seldom  eat  meat,  they  have  no  use  for  cattle  except 
for  draft  purposes.  A  small  breed  of  Corean  horses  is  raised. 
The  mineral  wealth  is  being  developed.  Coal  is  mined  in  Yezo 
and  Kiusiu.  Japan  has  the  largest  copper  mines  of  Asia,  copper 
being  the  only  metal  exported.  A  good  deal  of  antimony  is 
also  mined.     Iron,  steel  and  their  products  are  large  imports. 


186       UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL.   AND   WORLD   HISTORY 

Tlie  empire  abounds  with  the  clays  that  are  the  basis  of  its 
famous  earthenware  industries. 

'I  Modern  manufactures  have  had  wonderful  development  in 
the  past  forty  years.  The  Japanese  were  quick  to  see  the  advan- 
tages of  Western  methods,  and  have  applied  them  with  great 
dexterity.  Many  of  their  products,  however,  are  not  equal  in 
quality  to  those  they  imitate.  Their  manufactures  are  in  great 
variety,  and  not  a  fe,w  of  them  supply  the  home  need.  So 
many  of  the  people  have  been  diverted  from  farming  to  other 
industries  that  the  cost  of  living  has  considerably  increased  of 
late  years.  Among  the  best  industrial  products  are  steamships 
and  steam  engines,  cotton  and  silk  goods.  The  people  can 
milk  and  vegetables,  and  actually  export  imitation  Swedish 
matches  and  Bohemian  glass  to  Europe.  The  internal  trade 
is  facilitated  by  over  7,000  post-offices,  excellent  highways,  a 
growing  railroad  system,  and  thousands  of  miles  of  telegraph 
line.  About  70  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  trade  passes  through 
the  port  of  Yokohama,  and  Kobe  is  the  second  largest  port. 
The  economic  progress  of  Japan  is  indicated  by  the  bank 
deposits  in  the  whole  country,  which  were  in  1893,  37,000,000 
yen,  while  in  191  "2  they  reached  1,868,807,304  yen.  Races, 
Japanese  and  about  15,000  foreigners.  Religions — chiefly 
Buddhist,  150.000  Christians.  Trade,  including  Formosa — 
imports,  $309,471,^289;    exports,  $^263,490,4^21. 

Liberia. — A  negro  republic  in  West  Africa.  Area  (esti- 
mated), 37,000  square  miles;  population  (estimated),  1,500,000, 
including  25,000  negroes  from  the  United  States,  or  their 
descendants.  On  the  Atlantic  coast,  between  5°  and  8°  north 
latitude.  Interior  boundaries,  except  between  Sierra  Leone  and 
Liberia,  not  exactly  defined.  Capital,  Monrovia;  population, 
5,000.  Settled  by  emigrants  from  the  United  States,  the  con- 
stitution is  modeled  after  that  of  this  country.     With  a  coast 


UNCLE    SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND   WORLD    HISTORY       187 

line  of  300  miles,  Liberia  is  confined  to  the  basins  of  the  coast 
streams,  none  of  which  is  important  for  navigation.  The  civ- 
ilized poptilation  lives  in  towns  along  the  coast  and  the  farming 
districts  near  them,  or  penetrates  a  short  distance  up  the 
streams.  Behind  the  mangrove  and  pandanus  swamps  near  the 
coast  the  country  rises  towards  the  interior,  the  successive 
steps  of  elevation  being  marked  by  rapids  in  the  rivers.  •  Most 
of  the  interior  is  covered  with  dense  forests,  among  which  the 
native  population  chiefly  lives  in  a  state  of  barbarism,  as  few 
are  under  government  influence  or  control.  Nearly  all  the  col- 
onists live  by  farming  or  the  collection  of  palm  oil  and  palm 
kernels.  The  chief  exports  are  coffee  of  excellent  quality  and 
palm  oil.  Monrovia  and  Great  Bassa  are  the  chief  ports.  Race, 
negro.  Under  the  law  no  white  man  may  become  a  citizen. 
The  official  language  is  English,  and  most  of  the  civilized  negroes 
are  Protestants.  Foreign  trade  (1909) — imports,  $1,065,200; 
exports,  $970,500. 

Libia. — An  Italian  colony  in  Africa  since  1911.  Area, 
350,000  square  miles.  Population  estimated  at  1,000,000. 
Chief  towns:  TripoH,  population  40,000;  Benghazi,  18,000; 
Ghadames,  8,000.  Peopled  mostly  by  Berbers  and  Arabs. 
It  is  divided  in  the  two  districts  of  Libia  and  Cirenaica,  each 
of  which  is  administered  by  a  governor.  The  northern  section 
includes  fertile  valleys  which  are  being  developed  by  the  Ital- 
ians. About  25  miles  of  railroads  had  been  built  by  the  end  of 
1912.  Products  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Sudan.  Corn, 
oil,  cattle  and  dates  are  the  principal  articles  of  export.  Foreign 
trade:    Imports,  $2,065,000;    exports,  $2,100,000. 

Luxemburg. — A  grand  duchy  of  Europe.  This  state,  of 
triangular  shape,  occupies  the  east  slope  of  the  Ardennes. 
Area,  1,008  square  miles;  population  (1910),  259,981.  Capital 
and    only    important    town,    Luxemburg;     population,    about. 


188        UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

30,000.  Situated  in  about  50°  north  latitude  and  6°  east  longi- 
tude. Its  neutrality  is  guaranteed  by  the  great  powers.  The 
agricultural  interests,  including  wine,  mines,  quarries  and 
industrial  establishments,  are  important.  Its  iron  and  steel 
industries  are  important.  Nationalities,  German  and  about 
4,000  French-speaking  persons.  As  Luxemburg  forms  part  of 
the  German  Zollverein,  it  has  no  independent  trade  statistics. 

Madagascar. — A  colony  of  France  and  the  fourth  largest 
island  in  the  world.  Area,  230,000  square  miles;  population, 
including  Mayotte  and  Grand  Comorre  Islands,  3,078,376. 
Between  12°-16°  south  latitude  and  43°-51°  east  longitude. 
Capital,  Tananarivo,  population,  55,000.  Madagascar  is  930 
miles  long,  and  its  broadest  portion,  near  the  center,  is  350 
miles  across.  It  has  a  regular  form,  with  few  indentations, 
excepting  on  the  northwest  coast,  where  the  best  harbors  are 
situated.  Since  the  French  occupancy  in  1895  the  French 
have  carefully  explored  the  island.  The  elevated  interior  rises 
from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  This  is  the  most  health- 
ful region.  Around  it  is  a  comparatively  level  country,  extend- 
ing to  the  sea,  much  of  it  heav'ly  wooded,  and  not  far  exceeding 
GOO  feet  above  sea  level,  very  fertile,  but  not  healthful.  The 
leading  rivers  flow  to  the  west  coast,  and  some  of  them  are 
navigable  by  small  vessels  for  100  miles  or  so.  The  capital  is 
in  the  elevated  interior,  where  live  the  Hovas,  the  most  advanced 
and  intelligent  of  the  native  tribes.  The  chief  port  is  Tamatave, 
on  the  east  coast,  and  Majunga,  of  less  importance,  is  the 
leading  port  on  the  west  coast.  The  railroad  between  Tamatave 
and  the  capital  was  completed  in  1912.  Excellent  wagon  roads 
from  Tananarivo  extend  to  both  the  east  and  the  west  coasts. 
Cattle  breeding  and  agriculture  are  improving  under  the  French 
regime,  and  many  schools  and  a  number  of  hospitals  have 
been  established.    The  chief  imports  are  French  cotton  textiles, 


UNCLE    SAM  S   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WOBLD    HISTORY        189 

and  the  exports  are  rubber,  wax,  hides,  gold  and  vanilla.  Gold 
and  coal  mining  promise  large  development.  Races — Malagasy 
tribes,  including  850,000  Hovas,  and  I5,5i2  Europeans,  1,006 
Asiatics  and  foreign  Africans.  Religions,  chiefly  Protestant; 
about  400,000  Catholics.  Foreign  trade  (1910) — imports,  $6,919,- 
000;  exports,  $9,576,200. 

Mexico. — A  republic  of  North  America.  Area,  767,000 
square  miles;  population  (1910),  15,063,000.  Between  15°-32° 
north  latitude  and  86°-117°  west  longitude.  Capital,  the  City 
of  ^lexico,  population,  470,000;  Guadalajara,  118,000;  Puebla, 
101,000;  Monterey,  81,000;  St.  Louis  Potosi,  83,000.  Mexico 
is  a  wide,  high  table-land  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  with  mountains  rising  above  the  plateau  on  the 
east  and  west.  There  are  many  volcanic  peaks,  a  few  of  which 
are  active.  The  rivers  are  of  little  economic  importance,  the 
chief  streams  being  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  forming  the  north- 
east boundary,  the  Tabasco,  the  Balsas,  and  the  Colorado. 
There  are  three  climatic  zones.  On  the  low  and  marshy  east 
and  west  coasts  a  hot  and  unhealthful  climate  prevails,  with 
many  earthquakes  and  hurricanes.  These  coast  lands  are  called 
Tierra  caUenta.  The  Tierra  templada  occupies  the  middle 
slopes  of  the  coast  mountains,  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  plateau 
in  the  interior,  where  the  climate  is  temperate  and  spring  seems 
to  l)e  everlasting.  The  cold  zone,  Tierra  fria,  is  found  on  the 
more  elevated  table-lands,  and  the  loftier  summits  are  always 
crowned  with  snow.  The  rainy  season  lasts  from  May  till 
October. 

With  great  variety  of  climate,  Mexico  has  many  agricultural 
products,  but  farming  has  not  reached  a  high  level,  though 
rapid  progress  is  now  being  made.  Dry  farming  is  being  devel- 
oped in  the  northern  states.  About  one-seventh  of  the  surface 
has  been  cleared  for  tillage.     Great  landed  estates  exist  which 


190        UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

reproduce  many  features  of  the  feudal  system.  The  tropical 
lowlands  produce  vanilla,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  cotton;  and  in 
Yucatan  the  fiber  heniquen,  or  sisal  hemp,  which  has  become 
the  largest  agricultural  export.  Maize  and  beans  are  very  large 
crops,  and  are  the  staple  articles  of  diet.  The  favorite  national 
drink,  pulque,  is  prepared  from  the  agave,  better  known  as 
the  maguey  plant.  Many  tropical  and  other  timbers  are  found 
in  the  forests.  Most  of  the  agricultural  products  are  consumed 
at  home,  and  Mexico's  tropical  fruits,  tobacco  and  coffee  have 
not  yet  entered  largely  into  the  world's  trade.  Rubber  is 
obtained  from  the  guayule  plant  found  in  northern  Mexico 
at  elevations  of  6,000  to  8,000  feet. 

The  breeding  of  domestic  animals  is  growing  in  importance, 
and  cattle  ranches  are  now  numerous  in  northern  Mexico, 
many  of  the  cattle  being  sent  into  the  United  States.  The 
horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  are  numbered  by  millions. 
But  the  chief  source  of  wealth  is  the  mineral  products. 

Mexico  is  the  richest  silver-producing  country  in  the  world. 
It  is  second  in  copper  production  and  fifth  in  gold.  The  total 
production  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  three  centuries  ending  in 
1875  was  about  $3,614i,000,000.  Iron  ore  is  in  inexhaustible 
supply,  and  coal  is  found,  but  comparatively  little  is  mined. 
Some  zinc  is  exported  to  the  United  States.  The  precious 
metals,  chiefly  silver,  form  the  greater  part  of  the  exports. 
Large  wells  for  petroleum  have  been  sunk  near  Tampico.  The 
islands  off  the  Campeche  coast  contain  guano  deposits. 

The  Gulf  ports.  Vera  Cruz  and  Tampico,  were  very  poor, 
but  in  recent  years  have  been  converted  at  great  expense  into 
safe  and  commodious  harbors.  Vera  Cruz  is  the  chief  port  of 
the  country.  Progreso  is  the  great  heniquen  shipping  port 
of  Yucatan.  The  leading  Pacific  ports  are  Mazatlan,  San  Bias, 
Manzanillo,  and  Acapulco,  but  they  have  httle  trade,     Rail- 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL  AND    WORLD    HISTORY        191 

roads  reach  all  the  most  important  commercial  centers,  and 
connect  at  Eagle  Pass,  El  Paso  and  Nogales  with  the  railroad 
system  of  the  United  States.  The  railroad  across  the  isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec  has  been  rebuilt,  the  harbors  of  Coatzacoalcos 
and  Salina  Cruz,  the  ports  at  the  termini  of  this  railroad  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific,  have  been  greatly  improved, 
and  the  Mexicans  expect  to  attract  large  interocean  trade 
across  Mexico  at  this  point.  Races — Mexican,  Indian,  and 
about  40,000  white  foreigners  and  3,000  Chinese.  Religion, 
chiefly  Roman  Catholic.  The  exports  are  larger  than  the  im- 
ports. Textiles,  hardware  and  machinery  are  leading  imports, 
half  of  them  coming  from  the  United  States  and  the  remainder 
from  Europe.  Foreign  trade  (fiscal  year  1911-1912) — imports, 
$90,965,000;  exports,  $148,1.11,000. 

Monaco. — A  principality  within  French  territory,  between 
Nice  and  Mentone.  Area,  0.58  square  mile;  population,  19,121. 
The  income  of  the  state  is  derived  chiefly  from  the  tax  imposed 
upon  the  famous  gambling  establishment  maintained  there. 
Exports  of  oranges,  oils  and  perfumes.  Races,  French  and 
Italian.    Trade  is  included  in  the  statistics  of  France. 

Montenegro. — A  kingdom  of  Europe.  x\rea,  3,630  square 
miles;  ])opulation,  250,000.  Between  41°-44°  north  latitude 
and  18°-20°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Cetinje,  4,500;  Pod- 
goritza,  10,000;  Dulcigno,  5,000.  It  is  a  mountainous,  bare, 
limestone  region,  admirably  adapted  to  maintain  its  inde- 
pendence against  the  Turks,  but  it  was  quite  unable  to  support 
even  its  very  frugal  and  warlike  population  till  newly  acquired 
fertile  districts  bordering  on  the  Adriatic  increased  the  supply 
of  grain,  tobacco,  vines  and  southern  fruits.  The  result  is  that 
the  Montenegrins  have  been  diverted  to  some  extent  from  cattle 
raising  to  agriculture.  A  small  railroad  line  extends  inland 
from  Antivari,  scarcely  any  manufactures,  and  the  small  trade 


192       UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    AVORLD    HISTORY 

is  almost  wholly  with  Austria -Hungary  and  Great  Britain. 
Nearly  everything  is  imported  except  food;  and  animals  and 
their  products  are  the  only  exports.  The  seaports  are  Antivari 
and  Dulcigno.  The  people  are  of  Servian  and  to  a  small  extent 
of  Turkish  stock.  Religions,  chiefly  Greek  Orthodox,  with 
13,000  Roman  Catholics  and  13,500  Mohammedans.  Foreign 
trade  (1910)— imports,  $1,701,385;    exports,  $500,000. 

Morocco. — A  French  protectorate  in  northwest  Africa. 
Bounded  by  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  on  the  west  and 
north,  and  by  Algeria  and  the  Sahara  on  the  east  and  south. 
Area,  219,000  square  miles;  population  (estimated),  6,000,000. 
The  three  capitals,  where  the  Sultan  resides  alternately,  are: 
Fez,  100,000;  Morocco  City,  87,000,  and  Mequinez.  Tangier, 
on  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  is  the  principal  seaport  and  the 
seat  of  the  foreign  consuls.  Casablanca,  Mazagan  and  Mogador, 
the  Atlantic  ports,  rank  next  to  Tangier  in  the  value  of  goods 
shipped. 

Though  mountainous  in  the  north  and  south,  Morocco  on 
its  central  plateaus  has  rich  opportunities  for  agriculture  and 
stock-raising.  Its  undeveloped  mineral  wealth  is  very  great, 
and  in  natural  resources  the  state  is  regarded  as  richer  than  any 
other  of  the  Mediterranean  countries  of  Africa.  It  is,  however, 
of  little  commercial  importance,  for  the  government  is  despotic, 
the  taxes  are  very  onerous,  life  and  property  are  not  safe- 
guarded, and  the  fanatical  populace  bitterly  hate  all  peoples 
of  non-Mohammedan  faith.  Under  such  conditions,  extensive 
commercial  development  is  impossible.  By  agreement  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  and  Spain,  in  1904,  France,  with  the 
consent  of  the  Sultan  of  Morocco,  was  to  be  permitted  to  attempt 
in  that  state  the  same  work  of  development  she  has  achieved 
in  Algeria.  If  this  plan  is  carried  out  the  development  of 
Morocco  will  be  commensurate  with  her  opportunities.     Races 


UNCLE    SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       193 

— Berber,  Arab,  negro,  etc.  Religion,  Mohammedan.  The 
imports  are  chiefly  firearms  and  ammunition,  textiles  and  hard- 
ware, with  petroleum  from  America.  Exports,  cattle,  wool, 
wax  and  goat-skins.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $21,238,- 
064;  exports,  $13,639,348. 

Netherlands,  The. — A  limited  monarchy  of  Europe.  Area, 
12,728  square  miles;  population  (1910),  6,000,000.  Between 
51°  and  54°  north  latitude  and  .4°  and  8°  east  longitude.  Capital, 
The  Hague,  population,  280,000;  Amsterdam,  573,983;  Rotter- 
dam, 427,000;  Utrecht,  120,208;  Groningen,  75,341.  A  flat 
country  with  monotonous  plains,  interrupted  only  by  dunes  and 
a  few  higher  undulations  in  the  east  and  south.  The  dunes, 
stretching  along  the  coast,  owe  their  existence  to  the  winds  and 
seas,  which  heap  the  sand  into  rows  of  hills.  One-fourth  of  the 
country  lies  below  sea  level,  some  districts  being  from  12  to  20 
feet  below.  The  whole  country  would  be  permanently  under 
water  were  it  not  protected  from  the  sea  by  the  dunes  and 
gigantic  embankments  of  earth  faced  with  stone  or  protected 
by  stakes.  These  works  are  called  dikes,  and  they  protect  the 
coast  from  the  sea  at  the  points  where  there  are  no  dunes.  The 
climate  is  oceanic  and  moist.  The  summers  are  not  very  warm 
and  the  winters  are  not  often  very  cold.  The  North  Sea  washes 
the  whole  coast  line,  which  is  difficult  of  access  on  account  of 
the  dunes.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse,  or  Maas, 
and  the  Scheldt.  The  river  mouths,  with  their  ebb  and  flow, 
and  a  number  of  bays,  chiefly  in  the  Zuider  Zee,  form  the  few 
harbors,  of  which  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam  command  nearly 
all  the  sea  trade. 

The  country  is  a  land  of  canals,  all  the  towns  and  villages 
being  connected  by  them.  The  most  important  are  the  North 
Holland  Canal,  from  Amsterdam  to  Helder,  which,  however, 
is  not  wide  enough  for  modern  large  ships  to  enter;    the  North 


194       UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    AVORLD    HISTORY 

Sea  Canal,  16  miles  long,  utilized  by  large  steamships  between 
Amsterdam  and  the  North  Sea;  and  the  Rhine  Mouth  Canal, 
which  gives  Rotterdam  a  deep  channel  to  the  sea.  The  most 
fertile  provinces  are  in  the  north  and  west,  and  in  a  part  of 
Limburg,  where  agriculture  has  reached  a  very  high  stage. 
Grain,  potatoes  and  vegetables  are  the  chief  crops.  The  Dutch 
excel  in  the  cultivation  of  flowers,  vegetables  and  fruit,  which 
are  important  exports  to  neighboring  countries,  chiefly  England. 
The  country  imports  its  timber,  because  it  is  almost  destitute 
of  forests.  One  of  the  greatest  national  resources  is  cattle  rearing, 
which  has  attained  a  development  equalled  in  few  other  countries. 
Live  cattle  are  exported,  and  enormous  quantities  of  cheese  and 
butter  are  sent  abroad.  The  superior  horses  bring  large  prices. 
Sheep  are  reared  more  for  their  flesh  than  their  wool,  great 
quantities  of  eggs  are  sent  to  England,  and  fishing  is  a  large 
source  of  wealth. 

The  supply  of  minerals  is  very  scanty,  but  some  coal  is 
mined  in  the  southeast.  Peat  is  the  chief  fuel,  and  is  cut  in 
large  quantities.  The  Netherlands  is  not  an  industrial  state, 
its  manufactures  hardly  meeting  its  own  demand,  though 
calicoes  are  made  in  great  quantities  for  the  colonial  trade. 
Earthenware  of  all  kinds  is  produced,  and  Ijillions  of  brick 
afe  made  to  take  the  place  of  stone  in  building,  there  being  no 
building  stone  in  Holland.  Tobacco  and  sugar  refining  are 
among  the  other  leading  industries.  Diamond  cutting  has 
decreased,  as  the  industry  has  to  a  large  extent  been  transferred 
to  Paris  and  London.  Railroads  are  used  chiefly  for  passenger 
traffic  and  the  international  freight  trade,  the  canals  being  the 
main  reliance  for  domestic  transportation.  As  the  Dutch  have 
one  of  the  largest  colonial  empires,  and  exploit  their  colonies 
strictly  for  their  own  beni-fit,  these  possessions  are  a  great  source 
of  wealth,  giving  the  Netherlands  nuich  of  its  importance  as  a 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        195 

commercial  nation.  Races,  Dutch,  with  about  50,000  other 
Europeans.  Rehgions — 3,068,129  Protestants,  1,798,915  Roman 
Catholics,  104,000  Hebrews.  The  chief  trade  is  in  colonial 
products,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  exports  of  home  products 
goes  to  neighboring  countries.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports, 
$1,388,750,000;  exports,  $1,138,300,000. 

Newfoundland. — An  insular  crown  colony  of  Great  Britain. 
Area,  4''2,'200  square  miles.  The  fisheries  of  Labrador  being 
practically  monopolized  by  Newfoundland  fishermen,  the  Lab- 
rador coast  is  united  with  Newfoundland  for  administrative 
purposes.  Population,  (1911)  210,000.  Newfoundland  is  be- 
tween 46°  and  52°  north  latitude  and  53°  and  60°  west  longitude. 
Capital,  St.  John's,  population  (1911),  31,501;  Harbour  Grace, 
4,279.  St.  John's  is  nearer  to  Europe  than  any  other  port  of 
America,  being  only  1,675  miles  from  Cape  Clear,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland.  Though  good  farming  land  is  plentiful  in  the 
west  and  in  some  of  the  valleys,  the  fishing  industry  dominates 
everything  and  agriculture  is  neglected.  Nearly  the  whole 
population  is  devoted  to  the  fishing  trade.  The  hair  seal  is 
hunted  by  many  vessels  for  its  oil  and  skin,  and  the  cod,  herring 
and  lobster  fisheries  give  employment  to  most  of  the  men. 
Fish  is  cured  in  great  quantities;  dried  cod  fish  (half  the  exports) 
is  sent  to  many  countries,  and  fertilizers  from  fish  offal,  glue 
and  cod  liver  oil,  besides  canned  lobsters,  are  exported.  Food 
and  clothing  are  the  chief  imports,  most  of  these  purchases 
coming  from  Great  Britain,  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
Race,  chiefly  British.  Religion,  Protestant.  Trade:  Exports, 
$14,260,220:  imports,  $15,142,755. 

New  Zealand. — A  British  island  colony.  Area,  104,471 
square  miles;  population,  (with  island  dependencies)  (1912) 
1,096,881.  Between  34°  and  47°  south  latitude  and  166°  and 
179°  east  longitude.     Capital,  Wellington,  population  70,729. 


196        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Auckland,  102,676;  Dunedin,  64,437;  Christchurch,  80,193. 
The  colony  consists  of  three  islands — North  and  South  Islands 
and  the  small  Stewart  Island.  A  few  groups  of  small  islands 
(Chatham,  Auckland,  and  others)  are  politically  united  with  it. 
The  islands  are  mountainous,  the  loftiest  peak  being  Mount 
Cook,  in  South  Island  (12,349  feet).  The  climate  is  oceanic, 
but  the  loftier  mountains  are  snowclad,  affording  a  rich  supply 
of  water  to  the  broad  valleys  and  the  plains  bordering  the  sea. 
The  mean  temperature  of  Auckland  is  68°  Fahr.  in  January 
and  50°  Fahr.  in  July.  All  the  climatic  conditions  make  New 
Zealand  a  delightful  place  of  residence.  The  leading  branch 
of  farming  is  cattle  and  sheep  raising,  the  industry  being  stim- 
ulated by  the  luxuriant  meadows  and  prairies.  This  fine  natural 
condition  for  the  animal  industry  is  enlarged  by  the  cultivation 
of  fodder  root  crops.  Sheep  (20,200,000  in  1901)  are  most  nu- 
merous in  the  southern  part  of  North  and  the  eastern  part  of 
South  Islands.  Wool  to  the  value  of  over  $15,000,000  was 
exported  in  1901-02.  More  cattle  are  raised  in  North  than  in 
South  Island.  The  exports  of  butter,  cheese  and  meats,  sent 
refrigerated,  to  Europe  are  very  great.  The  common  farm  crops 
of  the  temperate  zone  are  constantly  developing,  and  over 
8,000,000  acres  are  under  cultivation.  The  damp,  steep  western 
slope  has  little  agriculture,  but  the  warm,  dry  plains  of  the 
east  of  South  Island  especially  make  ideal  farming  lands.  A 
great  amount  of  wheat,  linseed  and  oats  is  raised.  Phormium, 
or  New  Zealand  flax,  grows  wild,  and  is  used  for  making  paper, 
cordage  and  some  fabrics.  Gold  is  a  great  resource,  and  about 
$250,000,000  of  the  metal  has  been  exported.  Coal  and  petro- 
leum are  also  large  resources.  The  harbor  of  Lyttelton,  the  port 
of  Christchurch,  is  the  flooded  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano. 
Most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  wool,  meats, 
gold,  grain,  etc.,  being  exported,  while  manufactured  articles 


UNCLE    SAM  S   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        197 

make  up  the  imports.  Kaces,  chiefly  British  and  Maori.  Reli- 
gion, Protestant.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $97,729,395; 
exports,  $95,142,450. 

Nicaragua. — A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area,  49,200 
square  miles;  population,  600,000.  Between  10°  and  15°  north 
latitude  and  82°  and  88°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Managua, 
population  25,000;  Leon,  45,000.  Nicaragua  is  the  largest 
state  of  Central  x\merica,  with  extensive  seaboard  on  both  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  As  in  the  other  Central 
American  States,  the  population  is  largest  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

The  east,  covered  with  tropical  forests,  is  almost  wholly 
unutilized,  but  a  few  mining  centers  have  been  opened  among 
them.  The  principal  export  product,  coffee,  is  chiefly  grown 
in  the  west  around  Leon.  The  banana  is  planted  for  export 
only  along  the  Rama  or  Bluefields  River,  which  is  navigable 
for  65  miles  from  the  Caribbean.  Cattle  in  the  northwest  supply 
many  hides  for  export.  Bluefields  is  the  chief  Atlantic  port, 
as  the  larger  steamers  can  no  longer  enter  Greytown  Harbor. 
Corinto  (most  important  for  commerce)  and  San  Juan  del  Sur 
are  the  Pacific  ports,  and  a  railroad  connects  Corinto  with  the 
large  interior  towns.  Races,  Spanish-American  and  Indian. 
Religion,  chiefly  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade  (1910) — 
imports,  $2,856,305;  exports,  $4,545,075. 

Norway. — Until  1905  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sweden 
and  Norway,  when  she  seceded  from  this  union  and  became  an 
independent  state  in  September  of  that  year.  Area,  124,454 
square  miles;  population  (1912),  2,428,500;  capital,  Chris- 
tiania,  population,  241,834;  Bergen,  76,867;  Trondhjem,  45,335. 
Between  58°  and  71°  north  latitude  and  4°  and  31°  east  longi- 
tude. Norway  is  a  narrow  coast  country  on  the  north  Atlantic, 
the  entire  shore  line  including  fiords  and  large  islands,  being 
about  12,000  miles  long.    It  forms  the  western  half  of  the  largest 


198        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

peninsula  in  Europe.  The  prevailing  westerly  winds,  warmed 
by  their  passage  over  the  Atlantic,  keep  the  fifty  ports  among 
the  fiords  open  the  year  round.  The  same  influence  makes  oats 
a  flourishing  crop  at  64°,  and  barley  even  at  70°.  The  country 
is,  however,  mountainous,  and  only  about  2  per  cent,  of  the 
land  is  cultivated,  so  that  the  grain  and  potato  crops  satisfy 
only  one-half  of  the  domestic  consumption.  The  most  important 
vegetable  resource  is  the  forests,  which  cover  one-fourth  of  the 
area;  t  e  timber  is  close  grained  and  tough,  and  Norway  is 
one  of  the  leading  lumber-producing  countries,  though  inferior 
in  this  respect  to  Sweden.  Sufficient  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared 
to  meet  the  home  requirements,  but  only  a  small  quantity  of 
wool  is  exported.  The  most  valuable  animal  product  is  derived 
from  the  sea,  the  cod  and  herring  fisheries  yielding  millions  of 
dollars  every  year,  and  providing  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the 
inhabitants.  About  50,000,000  cod  is  the  annual  catch  around 
the  Lofoten  Islands,  and  the  less  valuable  herring  fishery  is 
pursued  all  along  the  coast.  Mining  is  not  important,  and  as 
coal  is  wanting  and  the  population  is  sparse,  Norway  could 
scarcely  be  expected  to  take  a  prominent  i3lace  in  manufactures. 
The  wood  industries,  however,  are  stimulated  by  abundant 
water  power;  and  ship-building,  brewing  and  distilling  are 
important  industries.  Christiania,  Bergen  and  Trondhjem  are 
the  leading  ports.  Races,  Norwegians,  Finnish  and  Lapps. 
Religion,  chiefly  Lutheran  (the  state  church),  with  about  30,000 
of  other  Protestant  sects,  2,000  Catholics  and  700  Israelites. 
Foreign  trade  (1912)— imports,  $112,496,776;  exports,  $72,- 
209,332. 

Orange  River  Colony. — Formerly  the  Orange  Free  State, 
one  of  the  Boer  republics,  but  attached  to  the  British  Empire 
as  a  colony  at  the  close  of  the  British-Boer  war,  now  part  of 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.    Area,  51,120  square  miles;   popula- 


UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        199 

tion  (1911),  528,174,  of  whom  90,000  are  whites  (80,000  Boers) 
and  the  remainder  native  blacks.  Between  27°-31°  south 
latitude  and  24'°-30°  east  longitude.  It  stands  on  the  high 
plateau  of  inner  South  Africa,  has  a  temperate,  healthful  climate, 
and  is  best  adapted  for  stock  raising;  wheat  and  other  farm 
crops,  however,  succeed  in  the  south.  Capital,  Bloemfontein; 
population,  about  34,000.  This  town  is  coming  into  note  as  a 
health  i:esort,  and  a  considerable  number  of  invalids  from  Europe 
are  living  there.  The  Boers  are  thinly  scattered  over  the  plateau, 
tending  their  sheep  and  cattle.  Wool  is  the  chief  product,  and, 
with  hides  and  ostrich  feathers,  forms  the  bulk  of  the  exports. 
Some  diamonds  are  mined,  but  the  mineral  industries  are  little 
developed.  Races,  Boers,  natives  of  Bantu  stock  and  British. 
Religion,  Protestant.  Trade:  Imports,  $17,730,000;  exports, 
$9,175,000. 

Panama. — A  republic  of  North  America,  formerly  a  state 
of  Colombia;  declared  its  independence  in  1903.  It  occupies 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  betw'een  Costa  Rica  and  Colombia, 
with  a  length  of  about  480  miles,  and  varying  in  width  from 
37  to  110.  Area,  34,120  square  miles;  population,  419,000. 
Capital,  Panama,  population,  30,000;  Colon,  5,000.  The 
mountain  backbone  is  boldly  defined  in  the  western  part,  but 
in  the  eastern  half  of  the  isthmus  there  is  little  indication  of 
systematic  arrangement  in  the  innumerable  hills  that  cover  it. 
About  150  short  rivers  flow  to  the  sea  from  the  northern  side, 
and  more  than  twice  that  number  drain  the  Pacific  slope.  The 
largest  river,  Tuira,  is  navigable  for  river  schooners  as  far  as 
Santa  Maria  del  Real.  The  Bayamo,  discharging  into  the 
Gulf  of  Panama,  is  said  to  be  navigable  for  small  craft  120  miles. 
Panama  has  many  bays  and  ports  on  both  oceans,  but  most 
of  them  are  in  primeval  solitude.  There  is  no  country  behind 
them  which  offers  an  easy  field  for  development.     Thick  forest 


200       UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA    CANAL   AND   WORLD    HISTORY 

covers  three-fourths  of  the  state,  and  five-eighths  of  it  are  wild, 
unoccupied  land,  the  remainder  being  only  rudely  utilized  by 
the  inhabitants.  The  climate  is  tropical  and  unhealthful.  The 
products  are  tropical.  Along  the  route  of  the  canal  to  be  built 
by  the  United  States  a  zone  10  miles  wide  has  been  placefl  under 
the  authority  of  the  United  States,  excepting  the  cities  of 
Panama  and  Colon,  so  that  the  United  States  may  carry  out 
works  of  sanitation  and  have  full  power  to  facilitate  the  building 
and  protection  of  the  canal.  Panama  and  Colon  are  the  only 
important  ports.  The  people  represent  an  admixture  of  Spanish, 
negro  and  Indian  blood.  Their  trade  is  small,  the  great  traffic 
crossing  the  isthmus  being  almost  altogether  transit  trade. 
Foreign  trade  (fiscal  year  1910-1911)— imports,  $10,020,070; 
exports,  $1,754,050. 

Paraguay. — A  republic  of  South  America.  Area,  97,726 
square  miles;  population  (1912),  800,000.  Between  22°-28° 
south  latitude  and  55°-62°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Asuncion, 
population,  80,000;  Villarrica,  28,755;  Carapegua,  15,000; 
Villa  Pilar,  7,247.  One  of  the  smallest  states  of  South  America; 
it  does  not  touch  the  sea,  but  the  Parana  and  Paraguay  rivers, 
accessible  to  large  steamers,  give  it  an  outlet  to  the  Atlantic. 
It  is  mountainous  in  the  east,  has  a  sub-tropical  climate,  agree- 
able and  healthful,  and  receives  abundant  rainfall.  Most  of 
the  country  is  well  adapted  for  foreign  colonization.  The 
western  part,  boi-dered  by  the  Pilcomayo  River,  is  a  low,  warm 
plain,  interspersed  with  forests  and  especially  adapted  for  cattle 
raising.  The  eastern  and  more  populous  region  is  mainly 
covered  with  dense  forests,  with  great  but  undeveloped  wealth 
in'  timber,  interspersed  with  plains,  especially  towards  the 
south,  which  are  splendidly  adapted  for  cattle  and  farming. 
The  vast  resources  of  all  kinds  are  still  little  developed. 
Rice,    sugar-cane,    maize   and    the  potato  are  the    chief    farm 


UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       201 

crops,  but  the  great  product  is  mate,  which  is  gathered  wild 
in  the  woods,  and  is  exported  to  the  amount  of  about 
15,000,000  pounds  a  year.  It  is  sold  chiefly  to  the  country 
people  in  several  South  American  states,  and  is  regarded 
as  an  excellent  substitute  for  tea  and  coffee.  Domestic 
animals  are  chiefly  confined  to  cattle  (about  1,000,000),  raised 
mostly  for  local  consumption.  Iron,  kaolin  and  salt  are  abun- 
dant but  little  developed.  A  few  home  industries  supply  most 
of  the  demand  except  for  textiles  and  hardware.  A  railroad 
(150  miles)  connects  Asuncion  with  the  Uruguay  system.  Races 
— Spanish-American,  100,000  Indians,  and  a  few  thousand 
Brazilians  and  Europeans.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign 
trade  (1911)— imports,  $6,478,495;    exports,  $4,828,910. 

Persia. — A  constitutional  monarchy  of  southwest  Asia. 
Area,  628,000  square  miles;  population,  about  8,000,000. 
Between  25°-39°  north  latitude  and  44°-62°  east  longitude. 
Capital,  Teheran,  population,  280,000;  Tabriz,  200,000;  Ispa- 
han, 70,000;  Meshed,  60,000;  Kerman,  60,000.  A  high  table- 
land, more  than  a  third  of  it  sandy  desert  and  salt  plain,  moun- 
tainous in  the  west  and  north,  tillage  confined  mainly  to  the 
west  in  irrigated  valleys.  The  rainfall  is  largely  deficient; 
climate  healthful,  but  very  warm  in  the  south.  The  Persian 
monarch  assumes  the  title  of  Shah-in-shah,  or  King  of  Kings. 
The  administration  is  corrupt,  but  the  adoption  of  European 
innovations  in  the  army,  etc.,  gives  an  air  of  progress.  The 
real  wealth  is  arborescent  culture,  particularly  fruits.  Cotton 
cultivation  has  made  considerable  progress  and  the  fiber  is 
now  the  principal  export.  All  kinds  of  minerals  are  found, 
but  they  will  not  be  available  until  the  wretched  communica- 
tions are  improved  and  mining  regions  are  open  to  foreigners. 
Most  turquoises,  however,  come  from  Persia.  The  Russian 
influence  now  predominates  in  northern  Persia  to  counterbalance 


202        UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

the  English  influence  in  the  southern  section.  House  industries 
supply  most  of  the  local  demand,  and  the  Persians  are  famous 
for  carpets  and  rugs,  which  are  the  largest  manufactured  export. 
Race,  Persian.  Religions,  chiefly  Mohammedan  (Shiite  sect) 
65,000  Christians,  19,000  Jews.  The  import  is  larger  than  the 
export  trade,  textiles,  glass,  sugar,  kerosene  and  tea  and  coffee 
being  large  purchases.  Opium,  cotton  and  wool,  silk,  carpets, 
pearls  and  turquoises  are  the  chief  exports.  Foreign  trade  (1911) 
—imports,  $57,020,845;    exports,  $42,058,470. 

Peru. — A  South  American  republic.  Area,  690,000  square 
miles;  population  (1912),  4,500,000.  On  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
between  3°  and  18°  south  latitude  and  70°  and  81°  west  longi- 
tude. Capital,  Lima,  population,  145,000;  Callao,  48,118. 
Areciuipa,  35,000;  Cuzco,  30,000.  It  has  a  long  littoral  on  the 
ocean,  and  a  part  of  its  territory  extends  to  the  east  of  the  Andes, 
giving  access  to  the  Atlantic  by  the  Amazon  River.  The  plain 
between  the  Andes  ranges  and  the  Pacific  is  a  desert,  with  rib- 
bons of  verdure  along  the  streams,  bordered  hy  irrigated  planta- 
tions where  sugar-cane,  cotton  and  tobacco  are  raised.  The 
mountain  ranges  are  economically  important  for  their  vast 
stores  of  minerals  and  the  rivers  that  their  melting  snows  send 
to  the  sea.  The  forests  east  of  the  mountains  are  rich  in  rubber 
and  cinchona  (quinine),  and  have  splendid  prospects  for  tropical 
agriculture,  as  yet  little  developed.  The  climate  is  tropical. 
Agriculture  is  limited  to  the  production  of  food  consumed  at 
home,  though  the  plantations  supply  some  export  cotton,  rice 
and  coca  (from  which  cocaine  is  derived),  and  also  sugar-cane 
for  the  home  refineries.  Cattle  are  numerous  among  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Andes.  The  alpaca  supplies  much  wool,  and  the  llama 
is  used  chiefly  for  mountain  transportation.  Sugar  and  metals 
(silver,  copper,  quicksilver)  are  the  principal  exports,  sugar 
being  the  most  important.    Mining  is  restricted  by  the  necessity 


UNCLE    SAM  S    PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       203 

of  carrying  ore  on  the  backs  of  llamas  or  mules  to  the  railroads, 
several  of  which  start  from  the  ports  to  the  interior,  but  have 
not  yet  reached  all  the  important  mining  districts.  Guano, 
once  a  great  export,  is  practically  exhausted.  Manufactures 
are  confined  to  sugar  refineries,  tanneries,  breweries  and  a  few 
cotton  mills.  Callao  is  the  chief  port.  The  largest  imports  are 
textiles,  iron  and  steel  goods,  machinery  and  groceries.  Races, 
Spanish-American  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic. 
Foreign  trade  (1911)— imports,  $30,964,965;  exports,  $36,- 
071,056. 

Philippine  Islands. —  A  large  island  group  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  under  the  control  of  the  United  States.  Area, 
about  120,000  square  miles;  population,  7,635,000.  Between 
5°-20°  north  latitude  and  117°-127°  east  longitude.  Comprises 
about  3,141  large  and  small  islands,  of  which  about  400  are 
inhabited.  The  largest  islands  are  Mindanao,  Luzon  (com- 
mercially the  most  important),  Panay,  Palawan,  Mindoro, 
Negros,  Samar,  Leyte  and  Cebu.  Mountains  are  the  chief 
topographic  feature.  The  larger  islands,  especially  Luzon  and 
Mindanao,  have  broad,  well-watered  plains  which  are  tillable 
but  not  over  a  third  of  the  area  is  adapted  for  cultivation.  The 
climate  is  tropical,  the  night  breezes  from  the  sea  affording  some 
relief,  but  the  islands  are  not  healthful  for  the  white  races. 
The  population  is  densest  in  Luzon  and  the  Visayas,  or  central 
islands.  Rice  is  the  chief  production,  but  in  poor  years  much 
is  imported  from  Cochin-China,  as  this  grain  is  the  chief  food. 
Manila  hemp,  a  strong,  coarse  fiber  derived  from  a  species  of 
the  banana,  is  the  best  material  for  cordage  and  sailcloth  and 
is  a  large  export,  the  Philippines  being  as  yet  the  chief  source 
of  supply.  About  172,500  tons  of  hemp  are  exported  annually. 
Tobacco  is  also  a  great  crop,  the  best  growing  in  northern  Luzon. 
It  is  sent  in  large  quantities  to  other  parts  of  Asia  and  some  of 


204        UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

the  western  lands.  Sugar,  copra  and  cocoanuts  are  also  export 
articles.  Rubber  is  grown  on  a  small  scale.  The  mineral  wealth 
is  large  but  undeveloped.  The  United  States  has  established 
local  self-government  wherever  practicable,  is  efficiently  pro- 
tecting life  and  i)roperty,  and  is  developing  the  islands  by  estab- 
lishing agricultural  experiment  stations,  live  stock  and  schools. 
Railways  are  being  built  gradually.  The  total  length  of  railways 
built  up  to  the  end  of  1912  was  1,051  kilometers.  The  govern- 
ment has  surveyed  the  coasts  in  the  interests  of  fishing,  and 
in  many  other  ways  is  doing  much  to  facilitate  progress.  The 
Tagals  of  Luzon  and  the  Visayas  are  more  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion than  the  other  natives,  who  include  the  dwarf  Negritos 
and  the  Mohammedan  Moros.  Races — Malayan,  Negroid, 
Chinese  and  whites.  Over  3,000,000  profess  Christianity 
(Roman  Catholic).  Imports  are  chiefly  cotton  goods,  hardware 
and  machinery.  The  imports  in  1912  were  $64,237,395 ;  exports, 
$57,067,435. 

Portugal. — A  republic  in  Europe.  Area  (with  Azores  and 
Madeira),  5,049,729  square  miles;  population  (1911),  5,957,985. 
Between  37°-42°  north  latitude  and  6°-10°  west  longitude. 
Capital,  Lisbon,  population  356,009;  Oporto,  172,000;  Braga, 
24,202;  Funchal,  18,989.  Most  of  the  country  is  mountainous, 
being  occupied  by  the  western  slopes  of  the  Spanish  ranges. 
The  plains,  very  fertile,  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  west 
coast  and  along  the  rivers.  The  climate  is  oceanic,  and  high 
degrees  of  temperature  are  registered  only  in  the  south.  Rain-^ 
fall  is  considerable,  especially  in  winter  and  spring.  The  rivers 
Tagos,  Douro,  Guadiana  and  Minho  are  generally  navigable 
to  the  Spanish  frontier.  Flax  and  southern  fruits  are  large  crops, 
but  wine  growing  (conspicuously  port  wine)  is  the  most  noted 
branch  of  husbandry.  In  the  quality  of  its  wine,  Portugal  is 
one  of  the  leading  wine  countries.     The  chief  domestic  animals 


UNCLE   SAM  S   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       205 

are  cattle,  mules,  asses  and  swine,  and  the  fisheries  along  the 
coast  are  very  productive.  Cork  derived  from  the  bark  of  a 
species  of  oak  is  sent  to  all  civilized  lands.  The  country  is 
highly  metalliferous,  but  the  mining  industry  is  backward  and 
the  mines  that  are  worked  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners. 
Sea  salt  obtained  by  evaporation  is  a  large  product.  The  manu- 
factures do  not  meet  the  home  demand  either  in  quality  or 
quantity,  though  textiles,  hats,  leather,  porcelain,  ornaments, 
etc.,  are  produced  in  Lisbon,  Oporto,  Braga  and  some  other 
towns.  Railroads  connect  all  the  chief  centers  of  population, 
and  domestic  trade  is  much  facilitated  by  rivers.  Much  produce 
is  brought  in  from  the  colonies,  the  other  leading  imports  being 
grain,' cotton,  coal,  timber  and  English  and  French  manufac- 
tures. The  chief  exports  are  wine,  cork,  sea  salt,  copper  and 
fish.  Race,  Portuguese.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign 
trade  (191^2)— imports,  $77,715,000;   exports,  $38,57'-2,000. 

Porto  Rico — Colony  of  the  United  States  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  island  is  95  miles  long  and  35  miles  broad,  with  an  area 
of  3,668  square  miles.  Between  17°-19°  north  latitude  and 
65°-67°  west  longitude.  Population  (1910),  1,118,012.  Capital, 
San  Juan,  population,  48,716.  Ponce,  on  the  southern  coast, 
second  largest  port,  population,  35,027.  The  central  range  of 
mountains  extends  nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  island,  con- 
densing the  moist  trade  winds,  so  that  the  northern  half  of  the 
island  has  abundant  rainfall,  while  the  fields  of  the  southern  half 
often  require  irrigation.  The  little  rivers  of  the  north  for  this 
reason  contain  more  water  than  the  southern  rivers,  and  many 
small  boats  carry  farm  produce  to  the  northern  coast  towns. 
Alluvial  plains  skirt  the  coast,  but  most  of  the  island  is  volcanic 
mountains  and  foothills  of  limestone.  The  tropical  climate 
is  tempered  by  the  trade  winds.  The  island  is  liable,  in  the 
late  summer  and  autumn,  to  be  visited  by  severe  hurricanes 


206       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD   HISTORY 

which  sometimes  do  great  damage.  Most  of  the  farms  are  small, 
and  four-fifths  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  agriculture. 
The  staple  products  are  coffee,  sugar  and  tobacco.  The  coffee 
shrubs,  grown  in  the  shade  of  banana  and  guava  trees,  do  best 
high  up  on  the  hills.  The  quality  of  the  bean  is  excellent,  and  the 
product  meets  with  ready  sale.  Over  150,000  acres  are  in  coffee, 
and  80,000  acres  in  sugar.  Sugar-cane  is  planted  chiefly  on  the 
alluvial  coastal  plains.  The  finest  tobacco  districts  (about 
12,000,000  pounds  annually)  are  in  the  inland  mountain  regions. 
The  mineral  resources  are  not  large,  but  the  evaporation  of  brine 
supplies  the  island  with  about  10,000,000  pounds  of  salt  a  year; 
and  magnetite,  gold  and  copper  ore  are  found  to  some  extent. 
Gypsum  is  very  useful  in  making  stucco,  and  there  is  an  abun- 
dance of  building  stone.  Most  roads  are  very  poor,  but  the 
United  States  has  connected  some  important  towns  with  good 
roads.  San  Juan  and  Ponce  are  connected  by  an  excellent 
macadam  road,  and  sections  of  a  coast  railroad  that  is  to  extend 
around  the  island  are  in  operation.  Steamers  ply  around  the 
island  as  well  as  to  the  United  States,  Europe  and  neighboring 
islands.  Races,  589,426  whites,  363,742  negroes  and  mixed 
breeds.  Religion,  chiefly  Roman  Catholic.  Nearly  all  the 
trade  is  with  the  United  States.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1912,  the  island  sold  to  this  country  goods  worth 
$42,873,401,  and  purchased  from  us  commodities  valued  at 
$37,424,545.  Foreign  trade  in  the  same  period:  Imports, 
$4,501,928;  exports,  $6,832,012. 

Rumania. — A  limited  monarchy  of  eastern  Europe.  Area, 
51,098  square  miles;  population  (1912),  7,248,061.  Between 
43°-48°  north  latitude  and  23°-30°  east  longitude.  Capital, 
Bucharest;  population,  388,109;  Jassy,  78,611;  Galatz,  71,719. 
Most  of  the  country  is  a  well-watered  plain,  with  skirts  of  the 
Carpathians  only  in  the  west  and  north.     The  Danube  is  the 


UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       207 

chief  river,  navigable  throughout,  but  of  its  tributaries  only  the 
Pruth  is  navigable  for  steamers  and  the  Sereth  for  rafts.  The 
climate  is  continental  because  the  country  is  open  to  the  north- 
east. Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  farmers,  but 
primitive  methods  still  prevail.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  all 
products  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  even  rice,  are  raised.  The 
chief  crops  are  maize  (the  staple  food),  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
rye,  tobacco  and  wine,  all  produced  in  excess  of  the  demand. 
More  maize  is  raised  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe. 
Domestic  animals  are  raised  in  large  numbers.  The  mineral 
wealth  is  great,  but  only  petroleum  and  salt  are  worked  exten- 
sively. Petroleum  by-products  are  used  for  fuel  on  railroads, 
steamboats,  and  in  factories.  Manufactures  are  primitive, 
and  all  the  finer  products  must  be  imported.  Flour  mills,  dis- 
tilleries and  tobacco  works  are  the  chief  industries.  Foreign 
capitalists  own  all  important  manufacturing  enterprises,  so 
that  the  Rumanians  derive  little  profit  from  them.  Races — 
Rumanians,  400,000  Jews,  200,000  Gypsies,  85,000  Slavs,  40,000 
Germans,  30,000  Hungarians,  8,000  Armenians.  Religions — 
Greek  Orthodox,  Roman  Catholic,  Protestant,  Israelite  and 
Mohammedan.  Grain  is  three-fourths  of  the  exports,  and 
imports  are  mainly  textiles  and  iron  goods.  Foreign  trade 
(1910)— imports,  $65,554,560;    exports,  $110,586,240. 

Russian  Empire. — x\n  absolute  monarchy.  Area,  Russia  in 
Europe  (with  Finland  and  Poland),  2,095,616  square  miles; 
Caucasia,  180,843;  Central  Asia,  1,548,825;  Siberia,  4,833,496; 
total  empire,  8,660,395.  Population,  European  Russia,  106,- 
225,138;  total  population  empire,  138,930,319.  Between  36° 
and  76°  latitude  and  19°  and  170°  east  longitude.  Capital, 
St.  Petersburg;  population,  1,907,000;  Moscow,  1,618,000; 
AVarsaw,     848,000;      Odessa,     540,000;      Helsingfors,     144,000; 


208       UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Tiflis,   200,000;    Tashkent,    188,000;    Baku,   202,000;    Tomsk, 
105,000;    Irkutsk,  112,000. 

European  Russia. — A  vast  plain  interrupted  only  by  the 
Ural  range  in  the  east;  tundras  in  the  north,  immense  forests 
further  south,  and,  to  the  south  of  the  Volga,  the  Black  Earth 
region,  the  granary  of  Russia,  with  boundless  grain  fields  and 
almost  no  trees;  further  south,  the  steppes,  divided  by  the 
River  Don  into  a  well-watered  western  half,  with  countless 
flocks  and  herds,  and  an  eastern  half  of  dreary  steppes  and 
sandy  deserts;  about  31,000  miles  of  navigation  whose  value 
is  impaired  by  the  fact  that  the  rivers  are  frozen  from  three  to 
seven  months  in  the  year.  The  Volga  system  alone  has  10,000 
miles  of  navigation;  canals  connect  the  rivers  and  the  Caspian 
and  Black  Seas  with  the  Baltic.  There  are  many  lakes  in  the 
northwest,  chief  among  them  Ladoga,  the  largest  lake  in  Europe. 
Russia  has  all  climates  except  the  torrid;  polar  bears  live  in 
the  north  and  lemons  ripen  in  the  south.  The  rainfall  is  less 
than  in  western  Europe. 

Three-fourths  of  the  people  live  by  farming,  which  is  still 
conducted  after  primitive  methods  except  in  the  west  (Poland, 
Finland,  Baltic  provinces,  etc.),  where  farming  is  intensive, 
and  the  most  modern  ideas  as  to  fertilization,  machinery,  etc., 
are  in  force.  In  the  greater  part  of  Russia,  however,  the  yield 
of  crops  would  be  more  than  doubled  if  better  methods  were 
used.  As  it  is,  Russia  surpasses  any  other  European  state  in 
the  amount  of  wheat,  rye,  flax  and  hemp  produced.  Russia 
grows  two-thirds  of  the  oats  and  half  of  the  rye  of  Europe, 
and  supplies  about  four-fifths  of  the  flax  fiber  of  the  world. 
The  export  of  grain  is  second  only  to  that  of  the  United  States. 
Fifty  per  cent,  of  Russia's  exports  consist  of  this  staple  cei'eal 
The  wealth  in  timber  is  enormous,  and  in  spite  of  poor  forestry 
and  wretched  roads,  the  timber  exports  are  very  large.     Stock 


UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       209 

farming  is  one  of  the  great  sources  of  wealth.  Animal  raising  is 
most  developed  in  the  western  regions  of  progressive  agriculture, 
but  flourishes  on  the  greatest  scale  on  the  broad  steppes  of  the 
southwest,  where  the  animals  live  all  the  year  in  the  open  air. 
The  fisheries  are  important.  Russia  is  one  of  the  most  favored 
countries  in  its  mineral  wealth.  Gold,  silver,  platinum,  iron, 
copper,  zinc  and  salt  are  the  principal  minerals  worked.  The 
coal-fields  are  extensive,  but  the  annual  yield  is  less  than  the 
quantity  required. 

In  manufacturing,  Russia  has  made  great  progress,  the 
policy  of  the  government  being  to  supply  home  needs  with  home 
product.  The  most  important  industries  are  textiles,  metal, 
leather,  soap,  sugar  and  spirits.  Nearly  all  other  branches  are 
developed,  but  much  importation  is  still  necessary.  Russia 
sells  farm  products  to  western  Europe  and  imports  manufactured 
goods,  and  sells  Russian  manufactures  in  Asia,  importing  raw 
materials.  Thus  it  is  an  important  connecting  link  between 
two  great  quarters  of  the  world.  Railroads  connect  the  prin- 
cipal towns,  but  wagon  roads  are  poor  and  traveling  is  easiest 
by  sledges  in  winter.  About  half  the  exports  are  cereals  and 
flour,  and  the  leading  imports  are  materials  for  manufacture, 
besides  machinery  and  the  finer  textiles.  Races  in  the  empire — 
100,000,000  Russians,  9,.500,000  Poles,  14,500,000  Mongolians, 
5,200,000  Jews,  1,400,000  Germans,  2,500,000  Caucasians, 
1,000,000  Rumanians.  Religions  89,000,000  Greek  Orthodox, 
11,400,000  Roman  Catholics,  (5,200,000  Protestants,  1,200,000 
other  Christians,  5,200,000  Israelites,  13,900,000  Mohammedans. 
Foreign  trade  of  the  whole  empire  in  1912 — imports,  $545,- 
985,000;  exports,  $753,155,000. 

Russia  in  Asia. — For  administrative  purposes  the  entire 
empire  is  divided  into  general  governments,  which  are  sub- 
divided into  governments  and   districts.      Caucasia  is  mostly 


210       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

mountainous,  save  for  wide  steppes  north  of  the  Caucasus  range 
and  fertile  valleys  and  a  part  of  the  Armenian  table-land  in 
the  south.  The  climate  south  of  the  mountains  is  cooler  than 
north  of  them.  Caucasia  is  rich  in  timber  and  farm  products, 
especially  wine,  but  domestic  animals  are  more  important  than 
agriculture.  The  mineral  wealth  is  great,  but  petroleum  is  the 
most  valuable.  The  wells  near  Baku  supply  Russia  and  a  good 
part  of  Asia  with  petroleum,  which  also  sells  freely  in  western 
Europe.  A  large  production  of  manganese  is  obtained  in  the 
western  section  of  Caucasia.  The  native  manufactures  barely 
meet  home  demands,  but  Tiflis  and  Erivan  are  distinguished  for 
carpets,  embroideries  and  weapons.  The  trade  statistics  are 
included  in  Russia's  commerce.  No  trade  statistics  are  issued 
for  the  rest  of  Russian  Asia. 

The  River  Yenisei  divides  Siberia  into  a  western  and  level 
half  and  an  eastern  and  more  mountainous  half.  Siberia  has 
long,  hard  winters  and  short,  hot  summers.  The  Obi,  Irtish, 
Yenisei,  Lena  and  Amur  rivers  are  important  means  of  trans- 
portation, and  many  vessels  ply  on  Lake  Baikal.  The  western 
half  of  Siberia  is  more  fertile  and  thickly  populated,  and  is 
chiefly  devoted  to  agriculture,  the  ordinary  grains,  potatoes, 
onions,  melons,  etc.,  thriving  in  southwestern  Siberia.  The 
same  region  contains  millions  of  sheep  and  cattle.  The  mineral 
wealth  is  considerably  developed  and  widely  distributed,  gold, 
silver  and  graphite  being  most  worked.  The  enormous  coal- 
field in  central  Siberia  and  the  extensive  deposits  of  iron,  lead 
and  copper  are  still  almost  untouched.  Manufacturing  is  chiefly 
confined  to  tanning,  brick-making,  ore  smelting,  etc.  The 
trans-Siberian  railroad  and  the  rivers  supply  large  transporta- 
tion facilities,  and  all  the  principal  towns  are  connected  by  post 
routes.  The  principal  commercial  centers  are  Tomsk,  Irkutsk, 
Yakutsk  and  Kiakta. 


UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        211 

Russian  Central  Asia  includes  the  Kirghiz  steppes  and 
Turkestan,  the  latter  being  of  most  economic  importance. 
The  commercial  center  of  Turkestan  is  the  flourishing  city  of 
Tashkent.  Cotton  is  the  largest  export,  and  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment endeavors  to  develop  the  cultivation  of  this  crop  to 
the  largest  extent.  Over  800,000,000  pounds  of  clean  fiber 
are  sent  annually  to  the  Russian  mills.  Silk  is  also  produced. 
Russian  Central  Asia  has  exterior  trade  relations  only  with 
Russia,  Siberia  and  Persia,  Indian  and  Afghan  merchants  also 
bringing  some  British  commodities  into  the  markets.  The  trans- 
Caspian  and  the  Orenburg  railroads  are  greatly  stimulating  the 
economic  growth  of  these  possessions. 

Salvador. — A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area,  7,225 
square  miles;  population,  1,707,000.  Between  13°  and  14° 
north  latitude  and  87°  and  89°  west  longitude.  The  smallest 
of  American  countries,  with  a  more  dense  population  than  any 
other  Central  American  state.  Capital,  San  Salvador;  pojiula- 
tion,  BdySa.  Salvador  extends  along  the  Pacific  coast  with  a 
sea  frontage  of  170  miles.  The  state  is  noted  for  its  coffee,  of 
which  it  has  the  largest  export,  except  Guatemala.  There  are 
hundreds  of  sugar  plantations.  Indigo  constitutes  13  per  cent, 
of  its  exports.  Live  stock  does  not  fill  the  demand  for  domestic 
animals,  and  mining  is  unimportant.  Most  exports  are  shipped 
through  La  Libertad  and  Acajutla.  Flour,  textiles  and  hard- 
ware are  the  chief  imports,  half  of  which  come  from  England. 
Races — Spanish-American,  Indians  and  mixed  bloods.  Foreign 
trade  (1911)— imports,  $5,390,370;    exports,  $8,406,309. 

San  Marino. — An  independent  state  in  Italy.  Area,  about 
24  square  miles;  population,  11,000.  Situated  about  44°  north 
latitude  and  12°  25'  east  longitude.  Capital,  San  Marino. 
This  old  and  famous  city  stands  on  the  summit  of  Monte  Titano, 
about  20  miles  in  an  air  line  from  the  Adriatic.     San  Marino 


212       UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

has  existed  as  a  sovereign  state  from  the  fourth  century  a.d., 
but,  though  independent,  it  accepts  a  subsidy  from  Italy  and 
claims  the  special  protection  of  the  king.  The  republic,  how- 
ever, is  not  democratic,  as  the  citizens  have  no  vote.  The 
supreme  power  is  vested  in  a  council  of  60  members,  the  title 
of  Councilor  being  hereditary  in  the  family,  and  when  a  family 
becomes  extinct  the  council  elects  another  councilor.  Race, 
Italian.     No  trade  statistics. 

Santo  Domingo. — Negro  republic  occupying  the  east  end 
of  Haiti.  Area,  18,045  square  miles;  population,  600,000. 
Between  17°-20°  north  latitude  and  68°-72  west  longitude. 
Capital,  Santo  Domingo;  population,  about  22,000;  Puerto 
Plata,  the  most  important  port,  6,000.  The  country  is  moun- 
tainous and  inland  communications  are  poor.  Mineral  wealth 
of  the  country  supposed  to  be  large.  Cattle  raising  has  recent- 
ly been  introduced.  The  leading  industries  and  exports  are 
sugar,  tobacco,  mahogany,  cacao  and  divi-divi,  valued  for  its 
pods,  containing  tannin  and  gallic  acid,  used  to  tan  leather  and 
dye  cloth.  The  IT.  S.  buys  nearly  all  the  exports  and  supplies 
about  half  the  manufactures  purchased.  Race,  Spanish-speaking 
negroes.  Trade  (1912)— imports,  $5,191,023;  exports,  $4,480,827. 

Servia. — A  limited  monarchy  of  south  Europe.  Area, 
19,050  square  miles;  population  (1910),  2,922,068.  Between 
'-3°-45°  north  latitude  and  19°-23°  east  longitude.  Capital, 
Belgrade;  population,  90,890;  Nish,  29,949.  The  country  is 
covered  with  mountains.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Danube, 
Save  and  Morava.  The  climate  is  continental  (very  cold  in 
winter  and  warm  in  summer).  The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  moun- 
tains are  covered  with  forests  of  oak  and  other  trees.  Nine- 
tenths  of  the  people  are  farmers,  and  Servia  produces  more 
maize,  wheat,  barley,  rye  and  oats  than  it  needs.     Domestic 


UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND   WORLD    HISTORY       213 

animals  are  in  large  numbers,  and  live  stock,  especially  hogs, 
are  exported.  The  country  is  rich  in  minerals,  but  defective 
means  of  communication  retard  development.  Manufactures, 
in  spite  of  high  protective  duties,  have  attained  no  high  level, 
and  all  fine  articles  are  imported,  while  the  house  industries 
supply  most  needs  of  the  peasantry.  Servia  has  400  miles  of 
railroads,  and  its  chief  rivers  also  promote  domestic  trade. 
Most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  Austria-Hungary,  with  which 
Servia  is  connected  by  natural  trade  routes.  The  railroad  from 
Paris  to  Constantinople  and  Salonica  passes  through  the  coun- 
try, giving  Servia  two  outlets  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  chief 
exports  are  grain  and  live  stock,  and  the  imports  are  manu- 
factured goods  and  petroleum.  Over  six-sevenths  of  the  people 
are  Servians.  Religions — Roman  Catholic,  Israelite  and  Moham- 
medan. Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $22,277,105;  exports, 
$22,504,855. 

Siam. — An  absolute  monarchy  of  South  Asia.  Area, 
200,000  square  miles;  population  (1910),  8,117,953.  Between 
12°-21°  north  latitude  and  97°-106°  east  longitude  (also  in- 
cludes the  narrow  strip  of  the  Malay  peninsula  to  4°  north 
latitude).  Capital,  Bangkok;  population,  628,000;  Chantabun, 
30,000.  Chiefly  i:)lains  with  mountains  in  the  northwest,  climate 
tropical.  The  larger  part  of  the  people  live  in  the  wonderfully 
fertile  valley  of  the  Menam,  upon  whose  rise  every  year  the 
quantity  of  the  rice  crop  depends.  Thus  the  river  bears  much  the 
same  relation  to  Siam  that  the  Nile  does  to  Egypt.  Siam  is 
one  of  the  great  rice-producing  countries,  the  exports  being 
surpassed  only  by  those  of  Burma  and  Cochin-China.  Wliile 
the  southern  part  is  a  flat  delta  land  producing  little  but  rice, 
the  great  forests  of  the  northern  mountain  regions  contain  teak 
and  other  timbers.  Teak  is  floated  down  the  Menam  to  Bang- 
kok, and  this  valuable  timber,   and  rice,   are  the  two  great 


o 


214        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

export  commodities.  Most  of  the  commerce  is  in  the  hands  of 
Chinese  merchants.  Bangkok  has  steamship  connections  with 
Europe,  but  the  larger  vessels  cannot  cross  the  bar  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Menam,  and  much  freight  is  therefore  lightered  between 
the  ships  and  the  capital,  25  miles  up  the  river.  The  king  and 
his  government  are  progressive;  considerable  machinery  is 
being  introduced  and  the  country  is  increasing  in  prosperity. 
Over  600  miles  are  operated  in  the  country.  Races — 2,000,000 
Siamese,  2,000,000  Chinese,  1,000,000  Malay,  500,000  Laos. 
Religion,  chiefly  Buddhist.  Trade  (1911-12)— imports,  $27,712,- 
815;  exports,  $32,068,205. 

Spain. — A  limited  monarchy  in  Europe.  Area,  197,670 
square  miles;  population  (1910),  19,537,434.  Between  36 
and  44°  north  latitude  and  10°  west  to  4°  east  longitude.  Capital, 
Madrid;  population,  597,973;  Barcelona,  587,219;  Valencia, 
233,348;  Seville,  155,366.  The  Spanish  peninsula  is  a  high 
plateau,  largely  covered  by  mountains.  The  center  of  Spain 
is  occupied  by  the  two  extensive  table-lands  of  Old  Castille  and 
New  Castille,  dry  and  unfertile  and  better  suited  for  cattle 
raising  than  for  tillage.  Spain  also  contains  two  great  lowland 
valleys  or  plains,  the  Aragonese  plain,  in  the  north,  and  the 
Andalusian  plain,  in  the  south,  which,  like  the  level  coast 
districts,  are  among  the  most  fertile  lands  of  Europe.  But  they 
are  small  in  extent  compared  with  the  table-lands.  The  rivers 
are  deficient  in  water  most  of  the  year  and  of  little  value  either 
for  shipping  or  agriculture.  Many  canals  were  built  centuries 
ago,  chiefly  to  irrigate  arid  districts,  but  they  were  permitted 
to  fall  into  ruin.  The  government  is  now  repairing  the  canals 
and  building  new  ones  to  serve  both  irrigation  and  navigation. 
The  climatic  conditions  of  most  of  South  Europe  are  found  only 
in  the  coast  districts  and  Andalusia.  The  bare  interior,  owing 
to  its  high  elevation,  suffers  from  winter  and  summer  extremes 


imcLE  Sam's  panama  canal  and  world  history     215 

of  temperature,  and  with  the  sea  on  three  sides,  Spain  is  deficient 
in  rainfall  and  much  irrigation  is  necessary. 

About  seven-eighths  of  the  people  are  farmers,  few  of  whom 
practise  advanced  methods  of  tillage.  The  best  watered  and 
cultivated  province  is  Valencia,  and  several  other  provinces  are 
carefully  tilled.  Apples,  pears  and  southern  fruits  thrive;  in 
good  years  the  northern  provinces  export  cereals  and  the  south- 
ern provinces  maize  and  rice.  Olive  oil  is  a  very  large  product, 
and  the  vine  is  the  most  important  branch  of  Spanish  hus- 
bandry. Most  Spanish  wines  are  inferior,  but  the  warm  climate 
of  the  south  produces  the  famous  wines  of  Malaga,  Alicante 
and  Jerez  (sherry).  The  finest  pastures  are  near  the  Atlantic, 
in  the  northwest,  but  over  16,000,000  sheep  graze  on  the  central 
table-land  and  are  driven  down  to  lower  districts  in  winter. 
Spain  is  very  rich  in  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead  and  quick-silver, 
but  most  of  the  mining  is  done  by  foreign  capitalists  and  the 
ore  is  sometimes  exported  raw.  Mining  products  attain  $32,- 
500,000  annually.  The  northeast  province  of  Catalonia  (espe- 
cially the  Barcelona  district)  is  the  home  of  the  greater  part  of 
Spanish  manufactures.  The  cotton  and  metal  industries  are 
most  prominent  there,  and  cotton,  flour  and  olive  oil  are  the 
leading  manufactures.  Minor  industries  are  limited  by  the 
poverty  of  the  people,  who  have  small  purchasing  power.  The 
trade  of  Spain  consists  mainly  of  the  export  of  raw  produce 
and  the  import  of  most  of  the  manufactures  consumed.  Bar- 
celona is  the  chief  port  as  well  as  the  leading  mercantile  city, 
and  Valencia,  Alicante,  Malaga,  Cadiz,  Santander  and  Bilbao 
are  also  important  ports.  Races,  chiefly  Spanish.  Religion, 
Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade  (1911  estimated) — imports, 
$190,561,000;  exports,  $170,291,000. 

Sweden. — Until  September,  1905,  the  eastern  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  when  Norway  seceded  from 


216       UNCLE    SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

this  union  and  became  an  independent  state.  Area,  172,876 
square  miles;  population  (1910),  5,521,943.  Between  55°  and 
70°  north  latitude  and  12°  and  24°  east  longitude.  Capital, 
Stockholm,  population,  341,986;  Goteborg,  167,813;  Malmti, 
88,158.  Sweden  is  mountainous,  especially  in  the  west,  but 
much  flatter  than  Norway.  The  only  plain  of  any  size  belongs 
to  Sweden;  it  extends  along  the  east  coast  to  the  south  of  the 
peninsula,  and  includes  the  fertile  region  of  Gothland,  the  best 
agricultural  part  of  Sweden.  The  climate  is  colder  than  that 
of  Norway,  and  though  half  of  the  land  is  unproductive,  three- 
fourths  of  the  people  are  farmers.  Sweden  produces  more 
cereals  than  Norway,  and  exports  grain,  chiefly  oats,  though 
it  imports  rye  and  rye  meal  and  also  wheat  flour.  Much  live 
stock  is  exported.  The  government  has  done  a  great  deal  for 
the  intelligent  development  of  dairy  farming  and  the  general 
improvement  of  agriculture.  The  fisheries  are  far  inferior  to 
those  of  Norway,  and  do  not  even  supply  the  home  demand. 
The  timber  trade,  on  the  other  hand,  is  of  great  importance, 
constituting,  as  it  does,  50  per  cent,  of  the  export  trade.  The 
shipments  are  made  largely  to  England  and  France.  Sweden 
is  poorly  supplied  with  coal,  but  has  large  deposits  of  iron  ore 
north  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  A  railroad  has  been  built  from  the 
mines  to  the  Atlantic  to  carry  the  ore  to  England  and  Germany. 
Sweden  is  industrially  dependent  on  other  countries,  as  coal, 
population  and  capital  are  wanting.  The  best-developed  manu- 
factures are  the  iron  and  wood  industries;  Swedish  matches  are 
everywhere  famous.  Linen  manufactures  meet  the  domestic 
demand,  but  the  woolen  and  cotton  factories  supply  only  a 
part  of  the  home  need.  Stockholm  and  Goteborg  are  the  chief 
ports,  and  there  is  a  large  coastal  trade  and  adequate  connec- 
tions with  foreign  countries.  South  Sweden  has  a  fine  canal 
system,  and  railroads  connect  the  chief  towns  with  one  another 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       217 

and  with  Norway.  Races,  Swedish  and  229,000  foreigners. 
Rehgions— 1,716,548  Protestants,  183,828  Catholics,  8,069  Is- 
raehtes.  Foreign  trade  (1910) — imports,  $179,998,000;  exports, 
$158,888,000. 

Switzerland. — A  European  republic.  Area,  15,976  square 
miles;  population  (1910),  3,753,293.  Between  45°  and  48° 
north  latitude  and  6°  and  11°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Berne, 
population,  85,651;  Ziirich,  190,733;  Basel,  132,276;  Geneva, 
123,154.  Three-fourths  of  Switzerland  are  covered  w'ith  moun- 
tains, and  most  of  the  inhabitants  live  on  an  undulating  plain 
between  the  Jura  Mountains,  in  the  north,  and  the  Alps,  in 
the  south.  Several  passes  afford  wagon  roads  over  the  moun- 
tains to  Austria  and  Italy;  and  three  tunnels,  the  Arlberg 
(to  Austria),  the  St.  Gotthard  and  Simplon  (to  Italy),  give 
uninterrupted  connections  across  Switzerland  with  the  regions 
north  and  south.  Owing  to  the  Alps,  the  republic  is  well  supplied 
with  water,  and  while  the  streams  are  useless  for  navigation, 
they  give  abundant  power  for  industrial  purposes.  The  lakes 
furnish  important  navigation.  Scenery  is  one  of  the  great 
resources  of  Switzerland  and  attracts  over  1,000,000  foreigners 
a  year.  The  climate  of  the  valleys  is  temperate  and  the  rain- 
fall is  very  large. 

The  mountainous  character  of  the  country  gives  agriculture 
a  subordinate  place,  and  only  four  cantons  produce  enough  food 
for  the  home  demand.  The  importation  of  grain,  live  stock 
(for  meat)  and  potatoes  is  therefore  very  large.  The  vine  is 
largely  cultivated,  but  the  wine  product  does  not  meet  the 
demand.  The  meadow  and  mountain  pastures  have  developed 
stock  farming  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  the  dairy  products 
are  famous,  three-fifths  of  the  cheese  being  exported  to  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Minerals  are  of  little  importance,  and  as  there 
is  no  coal,  the  manufacturing  industries  would  be  at  a  great 


218       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

disadvantage  if  it  were  not  for  the  water  power.  As  it  is,  this 
natural  and  abundant  supply  of  power,  together  with  the 
intelligence  of  the  working  classes,  has  made  Switzerland  one 
of  the  chief  manufacturing  countries  of  the  world. 

Over  500,000  persons  are  engaged  in  the  production  of 
cottons,  silk,  watches,  jewelry,  machinery,  wooden  and  straw 
goods  and  other  wares.  The  products  are  chiefly  those  that 
are  distinguished  for  high  quality  of  workmanship,  and  Swiss 
manufactures  find  markets  among  all  the  leading  nations. 
Though  Switzerland  is  far  from  the  sea,  the  railroads  to  northern 
and  southern  ports  serve  her  commercial  relations.  Races — 
two-thirds  German,  one-fifth  French,  Italian  and  immigrants 
from  other  parts  of  Europe.  Religions — 1,716,548  Protestants, 
1,183,828  Roman  Catholics,  8,069  Israelites.  Trade  (1911)— 
imports,  $347,855,000;  exports,  $242,661,000. 

Transvaal  Colony. — Formerly  the  South  African  republic, 
but  made  a  colony  by  Great  Britain  as  a  result  of  the  British- 
Boer  war.  Now  a  part  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Area, 
119,139  square  miles;  population,  1,676,611,  of  whom  290,000 
are  whites  (200,000  B.oers).  Between  22°-28°  south  latitude 
and  24°-32°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Pretoria,  population, 
37,000;  Johannesburg,  159,000.  The  colony  is  on  the  high 
interior  plateau  of  South  Africa,  4,000  to  6,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  mountains  are  chiefly  in  the  east,  south  and  north, 
with  a  wide  spread  plain  in  the  interior  and  smaller  plains 
scattered  through  the  country.  The  plateau  is  higher  in  the 
south  than  in  the  north,  and  the  climate,  temperate  in  the  south 
and  center,  is  tropical  in  the  north.  No  rivers  are  available  for 
navigation.  The  plains  are  the  home  of  most  of  the  Boers,  who 
tend  their  live  stock,  chiefly  cattle,  on  large  farms;  vegetable 
gardens  and  cattle  raising  for  beef  are  developed  chiefly  in  the 
south  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  large  towns. 

In  1904  the  largest  diamond  ever  discovered  was  found  in  a 


UNCLE   SAm's    PANAMA   CANAL   AND    AVORLD    HISTORY       219 

mine  opened  in  1903  near  Johannesburg.  Gold,  however,  is  the 
greatest  mineral  resource,  and  tlie  mines  are  scattered  through 
the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  colony.  The  region  that 
dwarfs  them  all  is  the  Witwatersrand  (The  Rand),  on  which 
Johannesburg  stands.  It  is  a  rise  of  ground,  the  water  parting 
between  two  drainage  areas,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  wide  and 
125  miles  long.  On  about  30  miles  of  this  narrow  strip  $80,000,- 
000  of  gold  were  mined  the  year  before  the  war,  surpassing 
the  yield  of  any  other  country.  The  industry  was  at  a  stand- 
still during  the  war,  but  has  rapidly  revived,  about  $72,000,000 
of  gold  are  mined  annually.  Gold  is  practically  the  only 
export.  Railroads  extend  to  Johannesburg  from  Cape  Colony, 
Natal  and  Portuguese  East  Africa.  Races — Boers,  other  whites, 
chiefly  British,  native  blacks  and  Chinese  laborers  in  the  mines. 

Turkey. — Despotic  monarchy  of  southeast  Europe.  Area, 
about  5,000  square  miles  since  the  Balkan  war;  area  empire, 
1,053,997  square  miles  (not  including  Egypt).  Population 
(Turkey  in  Europe),  2,000,000  since  Balkan  War.  Population 
empire,  about  30,000,000.  Capital,  Constantinople,  popula- 
tion, 1,106,000;  Salonica,  17-i,000;  Adrianople,  125,000.  Tur- 
key in  Europe  is  mountainous,  as  is  the  rest  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula,  with  many  a  alleys  but  no  large  plains.  The  Maritza 
and  other  plains  of  no  great  extent  are  extremely  fertile. 
The  climate  is  extreme  in  the  interior.  Turkey's  resources  might 
make  her  one  of  the  richest  countries  in  Europe,  but  she  is  one 
of  the  poorest.  This  is  due  to  oppressive  taxation,  which 
consumes  one-third  of  the  harvests,  wretched  government, 
few  roads  and  a  degraded  standard  of  civilization. 

The  soil,  however,  in  spite  of  bad  tillage,  produces  more 
than  the  country  consumes.  Maize,  wheat,  wine  of  poor  quality, 
tobacco  and  fruits  are  the  chief  crops.  Stock  farming  more 
than  meets  the  home  demand,  though  little  is  done  to  improve 


220       TJNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL,   AND   WORLD    HLSTORT 

domestic  animals.  The  country  is  very  rich  in  ores,  but  there 
is  practically  no  mining.  Constantinople  and  Salonica  have  a 
few  silk  factories  and  steam  mills,  but  there  is  little  industry 
outside  the  household  manufactures.  Turkey  is  therefore  an 
important  market  for  Western  manufactures,  paying  for  them 
with  natural  productions.  Races — 70  per  cent.  Turks,  Greeks, 
Albanians,  etc.  Religions — 50  per  cent.  Mohammedan,  42  per 
cent.  Greek  Orthodox,  5  per  cent.  Roman  Catholics.  Foreign 
trade  (1911)— imports,  $169,987,108;    exports,  $101,236,681. 

Railroads  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  increasing  the  importance  of 
Turkey  in  Asia.  The  German  lines,  including  the  Bagdad 
Railroad,  extend  from  Constantinople  to  Aleppo.  The  most 
important  city  of  Asia  Minor  is  Smyrna,  second  only  to  Con- 
stantinople in  the  Levant.  Asia  Minor  is  famous  for  Smyrna 
rugs  and  carpets,  and  the  hair  (mohair)  of  the  Angora  goat. 
Syria  sends  wheat  and  wool  abroad,  chiefly  through  the  port  of 
Beirut,  which  is  connected  with  Damascus  by  rail.  Another 
railroad  extends  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem.  The  railroad  from 
Damascus  to  Mecca,  the  great  goal  of  the  Mohammedan  pil- 
grims, has  now  attained  Medina.  Mesopotamia  has  steam  com- 
munication with  India  and  England  through  Basra,  at  the  head 
of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Cereals  and  dates  are  exported,  dates 
going  to  all  civilized  lands.  The  land  transport  of  Mesopotamia 
is  by  mule  or  camel.  The  district  of  Yemen,  on  the  Red  Sea, 
is  a  fertile  Arabian  coast-land  producing  Mocha  coffee. 

Tutuila. — A  small  island  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Samoan 
Archipelago. .  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States 
in  1899.  Manua  and  Rose  islands,  small  bits  of  land  to  the 
east  of  Tutuila,  are  included  in  the  colony.  Tutuila  is  of  vol- 
canic origin,  less  than  60  square  miles  in  extent,  produces  copra 
for  export,  and  has  in  Pago-Pago  one  of  the  finest  landlocked- 


UNCLE   SAM's   PANAALA.    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       221 

harbors  in  the  Pacific.  It  is  a  coahng  station.  The  islands 
have  a  population  of  7,250.  . 

United  States  of  America. — A  North  American  republic. 
Its  territory  south  of  Canada  lies  between  24°-49°  north  lati- 
tude and  66°-125°  west  longitude.  Its  area,  exclusive  of  the 
Territories  of  Alaska  and  Hawaii  (which  see),  is  2,970,230 
square  miles  of  land  and  55,370  of  water;  total  area,  3,025,600 
square  miles.  The  land  surface  aggregates  1,900,947,200  acres. 
The  total  area,  including  the  Territories,  but  exclusive  of  the 
colonial  possessions,  is  3,622,213  square  miles.  Population 
(1910),  91,972,266  (76,303,387  in  1900).  Capital,  Washington, 
D.  C,  population,  331,069;  New  York,  4,766,883;  Chicago, 
2,185,283;  Philadelphia,  1,549,008;  St.  Louis,  687,029;  Boston, 
670,585;  Baltimore,  558,485;  Cleveland,  560,663;  Buffalo, 
423,715;  San  Francisco,  416,912;  Pittsburg,  533,905;  Cin- 
cinnati, 364,463;  Milwaukee,  373,857;  Detroit,  465,766;  New 
Orleans,  339,075;  Newark,  347,469;  Jersey  City,  267,779; 
Louisville,  223,928;    Minneapolis,  301,408. 

The  continental  part  of  the  republic  embraces  nearly  one- 
half  of  North  America,  has  all  climates  excepting  the  tropical, 
and  can  therefore  raise  practically  all  the  vegetable  products 
of  the  temperate  and  subtropical  zones.  Having  also  large 
mineral  resources  and  enormous  development  of  manufactures, 
it  is  practically  self-sufficient,  actually  needing  to  import  very 
little  excepting  raw  products  from  tropical  lands. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  country  is  a  great  central  plain 
(Mississippi  Valley),  bordered  on  the  east  by  mountains  of  no 
great  elevation  (Appalachians),  and  on  the  west  by  mountains 
(Rockj"  jNIountains  and  Pacific  coast  ranges)  and  plateaus  of 
high  elevation;  with  narrow  eastern  and  broad  southern  coastal 
plains,  but  no  coastal  plain  on  the  Pacific;  with  over  14,000 
miles  of  river  navigation,  nearly  all  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 


UNCLE   SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY        223 

country,  and  with  inland  seas  providing  the  cheapest  trans- 
portation known,  excepting  on  the  oceans.  These  topographic 
features  have  had  j^rofound  influence  in  distributing  industries 
and  shaping  develojiment. 

The  Atlantic  coast  is  low  and  has  all  the  prominent  types 
of  natural  harbors.  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
the  Chesapeake  Bay  ports.  Savannah  and  Charleston,  and 
Portland,  Me.,  being  most  prominent.  The  Pacific  coast  is 
high  and  rocky,  with  only  four  great  harbor  centers,  San  Diego 
Bay,  San  Francisco  Bay,  the  river  port  of  Portland  and  scores 
of  harbors  or  harbor  sites  in  Puget  Sound,  one  of  the  greatest 
natural  harbors  in  the  world. 

The  eastern  coastal  plain,  covered  with  debris  eroded  from 
the  Appalachians,  is  a  region  of  fruits,  vegetables,  cereals, 
timber  and  pottery  clays,  finding  markets  in  the  greatest  cities 
of  the  country  to  the  north;  the  southern  coastal  plain  is  a 
land  of  cotton  and  great  lumber  industries,  the  plain  extending 
far  up  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  Great  Valley  is  the  pre- 
eminent agricultural  zone,  with  tobacco  north  of  the  cotton 
and  sugar-cane  zone,  the  corn  belt  north  of  the  tobacco  area, 
winter  wheat  in  the  corn  belt,  and  a  great  area  of  spring  wheat 
north  of  it. 

The  semi-arid  and  arid  plains  begin  to  rise  midway  l)etween 
two  oceans  and  gradually  merge  with  the  mountain  plateau. 
The  plains  are  a  vast  field  of  the  grazing  industry,  and  irriga- 
tion projects  now  in  progress  will,  it  is  expected,  reclaim  for 
tillage  50,000,000  acres  on  these  plains  and  the  plateaus  west 
of  them.  The  mountains  yield  most  of  our  minerals,  have 
large  grazing  resources,  and  conserve  from  the  melting  snows 
and  glaciers  the  water  to  be  used  for  irrigation. 

On  the  whole,  the  country  west  of  the  100th  meridian  has 
too  little  rainfall  for  profitable  farming  without  irrigation  except 


iZi 


UNCLE    SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY       225 

along  the  northern  three-fifths  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  country 
east  of  the  100th  meridian,  having  nearly  14  inches  of  annual 
rainfall,  is  the  great  agricultural  area.  The  Great  Lakes  provide 
the  cheapest  system  of  interior  navigation  in  the  world.  The 
railroad  system  has  larger  development  than  in  any  other 
country,  and  as  the  topography  favors  easy  gradients,  it  is 
possible  to  haul  long  freight  trains,  with  the  result  that  freight 
rates  are  comparatively  cheap.  This  has  helped  the  United 
States  to  compete  with  or  excel  other  nations  in  exports  of 
farm  products,  chiefly  cereals  and  meats,  to  foreign  markets. 

All  human  activities  are  developed  in  the  United  States  on 
an  enormous  scale.  The  total  wealth  of  the  country  is  esti- 
mated at  $107,104,211,917,  In  1910  there  were  6,349,357  farms. 
The  value  of  farm  animals  in  1912  was  $1,021,753,918;  in 
1911  the  wool  product  was  16,109,349  pounds;  wheat,  621,- 
338,000  bushels;  corn,  2,531,488,000  bushels;  cotton,  00,- 
000,000  bales  (average  weight  of  a  bale,  430  pounds);  and 
cane-sugar  (in  1912),  696,640,000  pounds.  The  corn,  wheat 
and  cotton  crops  are  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  the  United 
States  supplies  over  three-fourths  of  the  world's  cotton. 

The  United  States  is  the  first  nation  in  the  world  in  the  value 
of  its  manufacturing  industries.  In  1910  its  iron  and  steel 
products  were  worth  $1,373,102,977;  cotton  manufactures, 
$628,392,000,  and  total  value  of  manufactures,  $29,302,313,000. 

Coal  is  very  widely  distributed,  so  that  the  great  manufac- 
turing centers  from  Boston  to  Nebraska  are  not  compelled  to 
bring  their  coal  from  great  distances,  but  can  utilize  neighbor- 
ing supplies.  The  only  long  movement  in  coal  is  in  anthracite, 
which  is  mined  only  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  and  has  markets 
far  west.  The  iron  ore  is  derived  chiefly  from  mines  along  the 
south  and  west  shores  of  Lake  Superior  and  is  carried  600  to 
800  miles  to  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  smelters,   which    supply 


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UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY         227 

the  coke  and  limestone  for  smelting.  Transportation  by  the 
Great  Lakes  is  so  cheap  that  the  United  States  can  compete 
with  Great  Britain  in  iron  production,  though  many  British 
iron  mines  are  on  the  coal-fields.  Only  in  the  Birmingham 
district  of  Alabama  has  the  United  States  yet  developed  iron 
mining  where  coal  and  limestone  are  found  in  the  same  field. 
The  country  is  the  greatest  producer  of  pig  iron  and  steel  (1911, 
pig  iron,  24,027,733  tons;  steel,  24,054,309  tons).  For  many 
years  the  United  States  has  usually  led  the  world  in  gold  produc- 
tion ($96,233,528  in  1911);  silver  production  in  1911,  $32,615,- 
700;  coal  (largest  output  in  the  world),  550,000,000  tons  in  1912; 
petroleum,  9,258,874,422  gallons  in  1911.  The  country  is  also 
among  the  largest  pi'oducers  of  copper,  zinc,  lead  and  many 
other  minerals.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral  production  in 
1911  was  $1,918,184,384. 

For  many  years  the  manufactures  little  more  than  sufficed 
for  home  needs,  but  in  recent  years  the  United  States  has  entered 
the  list  of  nations  seeking  foreign  markets  for  its  manufactured 
products.  Though  the  price  of  labor  is  high,  the  invention  of 
many  forms  of  labor-saving  machinery  and  the  high  intelligence 
and  skill  of  the  working  people  now  enable  the  United  States 
to  compete  in  many  foreign  markets  with  numerous  products 
of  the  low-priced  labor  of  Europe. 

There  is  a  large  admixture  of  races,  as  immigration  from 
Europe  to  the  United  States  has  been  far  greater  than  to  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  Of  the  total  population  in  1910,  6,646,- 
817  were  of  foreign  birth,  Germany,  Ireland,  England  and 
Scotland  supplying  the  largest  number.  In  1910  there  were 
81,732,687  whites,  9,828,294  persons  of  African  descent,  and 
327,348  Indians  on  reservations.  All  religious  beliefs  may  be 
freely  held;  all  sects  of  Protestants  are  represented,  and  Roman 
Catholics  are  a  large  element. 


228       UNCLE   SAm's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

The  imports  in  the  fiscal  year  1911-1912,  were  food  and  hve 
animals,  $230,358,230;  crude  articles  for  domestic  industries, 
$555,980,041;  articles  wholly  or  partly  manufactured  for  further 
manufacture,  $293,739,134;  manufactured  articles,  $360,018,963; 
miscellaneous  and  luxuries,  etc.,  $17,061,958;  total  imports, 
$1,653,264,934. 

Domestic  merchandise  exported  during  the  same  period: 
Foodstuffs,  raw  or  prepared:  $418,737,763;  raw  material  to  be 
used  in  manufactures:  $722,988,839;  manufactured  articles: 
$1,020,437,687;  miscellaneous:  $8,155,539;  total  exports:  $2,170,- 
319,828. 

Union  of  South  Africa. — A  self  governing  union  of  South 
African  Colonies.  The  South  Africa  act  of  1909  incorporated 
Cape  Colony,  Natal,  (including  Zululand),  Transvaal,  and  the 
Orange  River  Colony  (which  see)  in  a  single  colony  known  as  the 
Union  of  South  Africa.  Its  capital  is  Pretoria,  but  the  seat  of 
legislature  is  maintained  at  Cape  Town. 

Area,  975,500  square  miles.  Population  (1911),  6,000,000, 
of  which  over  1,000,000  belong  to  the  white  race. 

Uruguay. — A  republic  of  South  America.  Area,  72,110 
square  miles;  population  (1910),  1,112,000.  Between  30°-35° 
south  latitude  and  54''-58°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Montevideo ; 
population,  317,879.  Uruguay  is  a  wide,  grassy  plain,  inter- 
sected by  a  few  low  mountain  ranges,  with  temperate  climate, 
abundant  rainfall  and  fertile  soil.  Its  position  for  trade  is  very 
favorable,  as  the  sea  forms  most  of  its  boundaries,  and  its  rivers, 
the  La  Plata  and  Uruguay,  are  navigable.  The  land,  mostly 
in  large  estates, is  devoted  to  pastoral  pursuits  and  agriculture.  Its 
largest  industry  is  grazing,  and  most  of  the  cattle  are  turned 
into  jerked  beef,  which  is  exported  to  several  Latin-American 
countries.  The  manufactiu'e  of  meat  extracts  is  also  a  lai'ge  busi- 
ness.   Millions  of  sheep  thrive,  and  the  exports  of  wool  to  Europe 


UNCLE   SAm's    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    WORLD    HISTORY        229 

and  the  United  States  are  usually  large.  In  addition  to  the  vege- 
table foods  consumed  at  home,  wheat  and  flour  are  important  ex- 
ports to  Europe  and  Brazil.  Flax  is  raised  for  linseed,  and  is  also 
important  in  the  export  trade.  The  chief  towns  have  railroad 
communications  with  Montevideo,  which  is  connected  by  steam- 
ship with  Europe  and  the  United  States.  The  mineral  resources 
are  little  utilized,  and  coal  is  a  large  import.  Uruguay  buys 
chiefly  manufactured  articles  and  sells  food  products.  Races — 
Spanish-American  and  about  90,000  foi-eigners,  chiefly  Spanish, 
Italian  and  Brazilians.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $47,- 
687,110;  exports,  $46,318,305. 

Venezuela. — A  republic  of  northern  South  America.  Area, 
364,000  square  miles;  population,  2,661,000.  Between  P-13'' 
north  latitude  and  60" -74°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Caracas, 
population,  73,000;  Valencia,  40,000;  Maracaibo,  50,000;  Bar- 
quisimcto,  32,000. 

The  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  republic  are  moun- 
tainous. Between  them  stretch  the  wide  low  llanos,  covered 
with  grasses  and  adapted  for  cattle  raising.  The  Orinoco  river 
is  a  great  inland  river,  which  forms  with  its  tributaries  a  navig- 
able waterway,  4,000  miles  long.  The  climate  is  tropical,  with 
dry  and  rainy  seasons,  and  is  oppressively  hot  on  the  coasts. 
The  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  but  little  advantage  is  taken  of 
this  source  of  wealth.  Coffee  and  cacao  plantations  are  of 
largest  importance,  machinery  has  been  introduced  on  them, 
and  the  chief  exports  are  these  products.  Gold  is  important  in 
the  south,  and  hides,  skins  and  horns  are  among  the  exports. 
Silver  and  copper  are  found,  but  the  mining  industry  is  not  com- 
mensurate with  the  wealth  in  these  resources.  Frequent  politi- 
cal revolutions  retard  the  development  of  this  rich  land.  The 
foreign  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners,  and  flour  and 
various  manufactures  are  the  leading  imports.     Races — Span- 


230        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

ish-American,  Indian  and  about  40,000  foreign  whites.  Reli- 
gion, chiefly  Roman  Cathohc,  with  a  few  thousand  Protestants 
and  Israehtes.  Foreign  trade  (1911) — imports,  $18,394,890, 
exports,  $22,684,384. 

Zanzibar. — An  island  sultanate,  under  British  protec- 
tion, ott"  the  tropical  coast  of  East  Africa.  Area,  about  1,000 
square  miles:  population,  210,000.  Chief  town  and  port,  Zanzi- 
bar, in  which  a  large  part  of  the  population  is  centered.  Zanzi- 
bar is  an  entrepot  for  the  collection  of  commodities  destined  for 
shipment  from  the  neighboring  islands  and  coast  regions  to 
foreign  countries  and  for  the  local  distribution  of  foreign  im- 
ports. Races — chiefly  negro,  with  about  10,000  Arabs  and 
7,000  Jews.  Foreign  trade — imports,  $5,520,000;  exports, 
$5,850,000. 

Partition  of  the  Continents. — Upon  our  Panama  Canal 
Globe  appears,  as  well  as  in  this  classification  of  countries,  depen- 
dencies, colonies  and  islands,  a  few  sections  marked  as  states  of 
apparent  importance  from  their  size  not  mentioned  in  the 
foregoing  descriptive  text.  In  such  cases  the  land  named  has 
no  importance  or  influence  in  the  world's  affairs,  and  is  almost 
entirely  undeveloped  and  occupied  by  uncivilized  natives,  with 
very  few  civilized  people. 

The  following  list  shows  the  Division  of  the  Continents  among 
the  various  Countries  of  the  World: 

NORTH  AMERICA 


British  Honduras. 

Canada. 

Costa  Riea. 

Cuba  (Continental  Isl 

Greenland    " 

Guatemala. 

Haiti  and  Santo  Uomi 

and). 

ngo  (Continental  Isl.) 

Honduras. 
Mexico. 
Newfoundland 
Nicaragua. 
Panama. 
Salvador. 
.      United  States  ( 

(Great  Britain) 
with  Alaska). 

SOUTH 

AMERICA 

Argentine  Republic. 
Bolivia. 

Ecuador. 
French  Guiana, 

Brazil. 

British  Guiana. 

Chile. 

Colombia. 

Dutch  Guiana. 

Paraguay. 
Peru. 
Uruguay. 
Venezuela. 

UNCLE    SAm's   PANAMA   CANAL   AND   WORLD   HISTORY       231 


EUROPE. 


Andorra. 

■\ustri;i-Hungary  (with  Bosnia-Herzegovina). 

Belgium. 

Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Uunielia. 

Denmark. 

Erance. 

German  Empire. 

Greece. 

Italy  (with  Sicily  and  Sardinia). 

Liechtenstein. 

Luxemburg. 

Monaco. 


Montenegro. 
Netherlands. 
Norway. 
Portugal. 
Rumania. 
Russia. 
Servia. 
Spain. 
Sweden. 
Switzerland. 
Turkey  in  Europe. 

United  Kingdom  (with   islands  in  British 
waters). 


Afghanistan. 

Arabia. 

.\siatic  Turkey. 

Baluchistan. 

Bhotan. 

Bokhara  and  Khiva. 

Chinese  Empire. 

Corea  (Japanese). 

Hong  Kong  (British). 


Abyssinia. 

Abyssinian  Somaliland. 

Algeria  (France). 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 

Angola  (Portuguese). 

Ashanti  (British). 

Basutoland  (British). 

Bechuana  Protectorate  (British). 

British  Central  Africa  Protectorate. 

British  East  Africa    Protectorate. 

British  Somaliland. 

Cameroon  (German). 

Cape  Colony  (British). 

Congo  (Belgian). 

Dahomey  (French). 

Egypt  (turkey). 

Eritrea  (Italy). 

French  Congo. 

French  Guinea. 

French  Somaliland. 

French  Sudan. 

Gambia  (British). 

German  East  Africa. 


ASIA. 


India  (British). 

Indo-China  (French). 

Japan  (with  Port  -Vrthur). 

Nepal. 

Persia. 

Russia  in  Asia,  Siberia,  etc. 

Siam. 

Straits  Settlements  (British). 

Sumatra. 


AFRIC.\. 


German  Southwest  Africa. 

Gold  Coast  (British). 

Ivory  Coast  (British). 

Lagos  (British). 

Liberia. 

Libia  (Italian). 

Morocco.  (French). 

Natal,  with  Zululand  (British). 

Nigeria  (British). 

Orange  River  Colony  (British). 

Portuguese  East  Africa. 

Portuguese  Guinea. 

Rhodesia  (British). 

Rio  de  Oro  (Spanish). 

Rio  Muni  (Spanish). 

Sahara  (mostly  to  France). 

Senegal  (France). 

Sierra  Leone  (British). 

Somali  Coast  Protectorate  (Italy). 

Transvaal  Colony  (British). 

Tunis  (France). 

I'nion  of  South  Africa  (British). 

Uganila  Protectorate  (British). 

Zanzibar  Protectorate  (British). 


Australasia 

Commonwealth  of  Australia 


States  and  Dependencies 

New  South  Wales: 
Lord  Howe  Island. 
Norfolk  Island. 

Queensland: 
Papua. 

Dutch  New  Guinea  (Dutch) 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Land  (German) 


South  Australl\ 

Northern  Territory  of  Australia. 

Tasmania: 

Macquarie  Islands. 

Victoria  : 

Western  Australia: 


232        UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 

Colonial  Possessions. — Most  large  nations  have  acquired 
colonial  possessions  in  order  to  secure  resources  of  raw  material, 
new  outlets  for  their  manufactures  and  special  advantages  for 
their  traders.  They  disburse  large  sums  in  the  development  of 
their  colonies,  and  the  results  often  show  that  the  money  is  prof- 
itably expended.  Thus  most  of  the  trade  of  Cape  Colony  is 
with  Great  Britain.  Canada  gives  a  preferential  tariff  to  the 
mother  country.  Nearly  all  the  trade  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
is  with  the  Netherlands.  The  trade  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  with 
France  is  greater  than  with  all  other  countries  together. 

European  countries  were  so  impressed  with  the  value  of  colo- 
nial possessions  that  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  they  scrambled 
for  all  the  African  territory  they  could  secure  until  nearly  the 
whole  continent  was  parceled  out  among  them.  Great  Britain 
and  Germany,  in  recent  years,  have  acquired  most  of  the  unappro- 
priated islands  in  the  Pacific.  Here  is  a  list  of  the  Colonial 
Possessions  of  the  various  nations: 

Denmark. 

Greenland  (south  part  of  east  and  west  St.  Cioix,       1 


coasts). 

St.  John,         [  West  Indies 

Iceland. 

St.  Thomas. 

France. 

Africa: 

Laos. 

Algeria. 

Tonkin. 

Dahomey. 

French  Congo. 

~ 

Indian  Ocean: 

French  Guinea. 

Comoro  Islands. 

French  Somaliland. 

Gloriosa  Islands. 

Ivory  Coast. 

Kerguelen  Islands. 

Morocco. 

, 

Madagascar    (with    Diego  Suarez  Nossi- 

Senegal. 

Be,  St.  Marie  de  Madagascar). 

Tunis. 

Mayotte. 

New  Amsterdam  Islands. 

America: 

Reunion. 

French  Guiana. 

St.  Paul  Islands. 

Guadeloupe. 

Martinique. 

Pacific  Ocean: 

St.  Pierre  and  Miquclon. 

Clipperton  Lslands.      (T'ndcr    arl)ilration, 

contested   by  Mexico). 

.\sia: 

F''utuna  and  Alofi. 

Annam. 

Gambler  Islands. 

Cambodia. 

Marquesas  Islands. 

Cochincliina. 

New  Caledonia  and  Loyalty  Islands. 

French  India. 

(The   towns 

of  Shander- 

Taliiti  and  Windward  Islands. 

nagar,  Karika 

1,  Pondic 

■hery 

,  Mahe, 

,  and 

Tabuai  Islands. 

Yanaon.) 

Wallis  .'Vrchipelago. 

UNCLE    SAM's    PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 


233 


Africa: 
Cameroon. 
German  East  Africa. 
German  Southwest  Africa. 
Togo. 

Asia: 

Kiau-chau. 


Germany. 

Pacific  Ocean: 

Bismarck  Archipelago. 
Caroline  Islands. 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Land. 
Marianne    or    Ladrone 

Guam). 
Marshall  Islands. 
Samoa. 
Solomon  Islands  (part). 

Great  Britain. 


Islands    (except 


Africa: 

Basutoland. 

Bechuana  Protectorate. 

British  Central  Africa  Protectorate. 

Cape  Colony. 

East  Africa  Protectorate. 

Gambia. 

Gold  Coast. 

Lagos  with  Yoruba. 

America: 

Bahama  Islands. 

British  Honduras. 

Canada. 

Cayman  Islands. 

Jamaica. 

Labrador. 

Newfoundland. 

Pedro  and  Morant  Cays. 

Turks  and  Caicos  Islands. 

Asia: 

Amboin  Cay. 

Bahrein  Islands. 

British  North  Borneo. 

Brunei. 

Ceylon. 

Christmas  Islands. 

Hong  Kong. 

Johore. 

Kamaran  Islands. 

Keeling  Islands. 

Labuan. 

Malay  Protected  States. 

Maldive  Islands. 

Sarawak. 

Sprattley  Island. 

Straits  Settlements  (Singapore,  Malacca, 

Penang). 
The  Indian  Empire. 

Aden. 

Andaman  Islands,  Nicobar  Islands,  Ba- 
luchistan. 

Arabian  Protectorate. 

Sokotra. 
The  leased  Territory  of  Hong  Kong. 
Weihaiwei. 

Atlantic  Ocean: 
Ascension  Island. 


Bermuda. 
Falkland  Islands. 
St.  Helena. 
Tristan  da  Cunha. 

Australia  and  the  South  Sea: 
Australian  Commonwealth. 
Papua. 

Indian  Ocean: 
Admiralty  Island. 
Aldabra  Island. 
Natal  with  Zululand. 
Nigeria. 

Orange  River  Colony. 
Rhodesia. 
Sierra  Leone. 
Somaliland  (British). 
Transvaal  Colony. 
Uganda  Protectorate. 
Zanzibar  Protectorate. 
Cargados  Islands. 
Chagos  and  Oil  Islands. 
Mauritius. 
Rodriguez. 
Seychelles. 

Leeward  Islands: 
Anguilla. 
Antigua. 
Barbuda. 
Dominica. 
Montserrat. 
Nevis. 
Redonda. 

St.  Christopher  (St.  Kitts). 
Virgin  Islands. 

Mediterranean: 
Cyprus. 
Gibraltar. 
Malta. 

New  Zealand: 
Antipodes  Island. 
Auckland  Islands. 
Bounty  Island. 
Campbell  Island. 
Chatham  Islands. 
Cook  Islands. 


234       UNCLE   SAM's   PANAMA    CANAL   AND    WORLD    HISTORY 


Ducie  Island. 

Union  Islands. 

Ellice  Islands. 

Fanning  Island. 

Windward  Islands: 

Fiji  Island.s,  with  Rotumah. 

Barbados. 

Gilbert  Islands. 

British  Guiana. 

Kerniadec  Islands. 

Granada. 

Phoenix  Islands. 

Santa  Lucia. 

Pitcairn  Island. 

Sombrero. 

Santa  Cruz  Islands. 

St.  Vincent. 

Solomon  Islands  (Guadalcanar, 

Malaita,           Tobago. 

etc.). 

Trinidad. 

Tonga  Islands. 

Italy. 

Aussa  and  Danakil. 

Libia. 

Eritrea. 

Somali,  Coast  Prot 

Dutch  East  Indies: 
Amboina. 
Atjeh. 
Celebes. 

Java  and  Madura. 
Lampongs. 

Menado  (on  Celebes  Island). 
Palembang. 

Riau — Lingga  Peninsula. 
South  and  East  Borneo. 
Sumatra  East  Coast. 
Sumatra  West  Coast. 
Ternate. 
Timor  (west  half). 


Japan. 

Corea 

Netherlands,  The. 

Bali  and  Lombok. 

Banca. 

BiUiton. 

West  Borneo. 

Western  New  Guinea. 


Dutch  West  Indies: 
Aruba. 

Buen  Ayre,  or  Bonaire. 
Curacao. 
Saba. 

St.  Eustatius. 
St.  Martin    (half    of    which    belong.^    to 

France). 
Surinam,  or  Dutch  Guiana. 


Portugal. 


Africa: 
Angola. 

Cape  Verde  Islands. 

East  Africa  (or  Portuguese  East  Africa). 
Guinea,  Portuguese. 
Sao  Thoma  (St.  Thomas)  and  Principe. 


Asia  (Portugese  India): 
Damao. 
Diu. 
Goa. 
Macao. 

Timor    (east    half),    with    Cambing    (or 
Pulo  Cambing). 


Annabon. 
Fernando  Po. 


Spain. 


Rio  Muni. 
Rio  de  Oro. 


United  States. 


Aleutian  Islands. 
Baker  Island. 
Guam. 

Hawaiian  Islands. 
Howland  Island. 


Marcus  Island. 

Midway  Wake  and  Johnstone  Islands. 

Philippine  Islands. 

Purto  Rito, 

Tutuila  (Samoa). 


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